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THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Sarah Huxley Titles in this Series The Move to Programme-Based Approaches – An Effective Partnership for Girls’ Education? The Experience of Recent Evaluations Ted Freeman Educating Girls in South Asia: Promising Approaches Barbara Herz Reaching the Girls in South Asia: Differentiated Needs and Responses in Emergencies Alexandra Mathieu Mainstreaming Gender for Better Girls' Education: Policy and Institutional Issues Ramya Subrahmanian Measuring Gender Inequality in Education in South Asia Elaine Unterhalter Addressing Social and Gender Disparity in South Asia Through SWAps and PBAs in Education: How Can We Use World Experience? Amanda Seel From Parity to Equality in Girls’ Education: How Are We Doing in South Asia? Els Heijnen-Maathuis Poverty and Economic Vulnerability in South Asia: Does It Impact Girls’ Education? Eshya Mujahid-Mukhtar Gender Mainstreaming: Does It Happen in Education in South Asia? Chandra Gunawardena and Swarna Jayaweera Progress in Girls’ Education: The Challenge of Gender Equality in South Asia Sarah Huxley PROGRESS IN GIRLS’ EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Sarah Huxley © The United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Regional Office for South Asia; and United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative (UNGEI) June, 2008 Short excerpts from this paper may be reproduced for non-profit purposes without authorization on condition that the source is acknowledged. For longer extracts, permission in advance must be obtained from the copyright holders via email at rosa@unicef.org. The opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and publication does not necessarily constitute an endorsement by UNICEF or UNGEI. Chair, Steering Committee: Susan Durston UNGEI: Raka Rashid Series Editor: John Evans Feedback and correspondence to: rosa@unicef.org Websites: www.unicef.org www.ungei.org Cover photo: © UNICEF/HQ03-0290/Asad Zaidi Design and Colour Separations: DigiScan Pre-press, Kathmandu, Nepal Printing: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu, Nepal CONTENTS Series Foreword ....................................................................................................... v Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ vii Acronyms ........................................................................................................... viii Terminology ............................................................................................................. x Summary ............................................................................................................. xi 1. The South Asia Context: Progress and Challenges .......................................... 1 1.1 Regional Diversity ..................................................................................... 1 1.2 Is South Asia Different From Other Regions? ............................................. 2 1.3 The Holistic Benefits of Girls’ Education ................................................... 3 2. Barriers to Education ............................................................................... 4 2.1 The Extent of Inequality and Social Exclusion ........................................... 4 2.2 Understanding Empowerment .................................................................... 8 2.3 State Expenditure on Education ............................................................... 11 3. Poverty and Vulnerability ........................................................................ 14 3.1 Vulnerability in South Asia: An Overview ................................................. 14 3.2 Development Profiles .............................................................................. 15 3.3 Poverty and Employment ......................................................................... 17 4. Gender Mainstreaming ........................................................................... 19 4.1 National Policies: Legal Commitments ................................................... 19 4.2 Sector-Wide Approaches (SWAps) in Education ........................................ 21 4.3 Lessons Learnt: Approaches to Mainstreaming ......................................... 24 iii PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 5. An Integrated Approach to Education and Health .................................... 26 5.1 A CRC Vision of Education and Health ..................................................... 26 5.2 Girl Friendly Schools: Infrastructure ........................................................ 30 5.3 Tackling Gender-based Violence .............................................................. 31 6. A Pathway Towards Quality Learning ....................................................... 34 6.1 Teachers: The Vital Link .......................................................................... 34 6.2 Student Participation .............................................................................. 38 6.3 Curriculum, Language and Assessment ................................................... 40 6.4 School–Community Partnership ............................................................... 43 6.5 Alternative and Non-Formal Quality Programmes ..................................... 44 7. Recommendations: Strategies for Affirmative Action ................................ 45 8. Conclusion: The Time Is Now .................................................................. 54 Bibliography ................................................................................................ 58 Notes .......................................................................................................... 68 Annex 1 Key Legislation Promoting Girls’ Education ............................................. 69 Annex 2 Education and Women’s Productivity and Income ..................................... 71 Annex 3 How Health Affects Girls’ Education ........................................................ 72 Annex 4 Promoting Health and Education for Girls – Where Do We Stand? ............. 74 Annex 5 Government of India Report on Child Abuse, 2006 ................................... 75 Annex 6 How Children Learn and Implications for School Practice ......................... 76 Annex 7 Case Studies on Girls’ Participation ......................................................... 78 Annex 8 Policy Changes That May Improve Instructional Outcomes ....................... 79 About the Author ......................................................................................... 82 iv PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA SERIES FOREWORD There is a growing sense of momentum around education in South Asia. Governments are engaged and a lot has been done. The Millennium Development Goals have added an additional spur to action as indeed have greater awareness on gender disparity and the need for educated workers. There is though a long way to go if the rights of all children are to be realized. Providing access to education is only part of the story. Once children are enrolled and attending, the quality of their education must make it a worthwhile experience. The special needs of girls in the social and cultural context of South Asia call for special measures, as do the needs of all children in situations of conflict and emergency. South Asia has many rich, positive examples of success in advancing basic education. It is important that these are shared and built on if there is to be an overall improvement throughout the region. This series of papers aimed at promoting better education in South Asia grew out of collaboration between the UNICEF Regional Office for South Asia and the newly formed UN Girls’ Education Initiative, and had its genesis at a Regional Meeting on Accelerating Girls’ Education in South Asia in February 2005. Essentially the series is intended to be a forum that allows debate, exchange of ideas and to break new ground. It will aim to capture the momentum and extol good practice to all engaged in educational policy and implementation. v PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA The series does not seek to represent a specific viewpoint, but rather is intended to enable specialist contributors to present issues in greater depth and breadth than is often the case in official documents. Initially the series will focus on girls’ education but it is hoped that eventually it will broaden into a platform for more general education issues related to South Asia, with a particular emphasis on social inclusion. Contributions and feedback are invited from academics and practitioners from throughout the South Asia region and beyond. The series editors are particularly interested in submissions which offer new ideas and strategies that can assist those needing answers, and which can add impetus to the ongoing efforts in the region to provide quality education for all. Come, join the debate! vi PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank Susan Durston and Raka Rashid at UNICEF ROSA for their ongoing advice and support. I am also grateful to Els Heijnen-Maathuis, Vimala Ramachandran, Eshya Mujahid-Mukhtar, Chandra Gunawardena, Swarna Jayaweera and Roshan Chitrakar whose work this issues paper is largely based upon. Special thanks are also due to John Evans for the final editing. Sarah Huxley vii PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ACRONYMS BRAC Bangladesh Rural Action Committee CAR Commission of Afghani Refugees C-EMIS Community-based EMIS CFA Continuous Formative Assessment CFS Child Friendly School COPE Community Organized Primary Education (Afghanistan) CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child CRP Child Rights Programming EFA Education For All EMIS Education Management Information System FSP Female Stipend Programme (Bangladesh) GEM Gender Empowerment Measure GEEI Gender Equality in Education Index GER Gross Enrolment Ratio GMR Global Monitoring Report GPI Gender Parity Index HDI Human Development Index IDEAL Intensive District Education for All (Bangladesh) IDP Internally Displaced Person ILFE Inclusive Learning Friendly Environments MDA Mid-Decade Assessment (EFA) MDG Millennium Development Goal viii PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA MoE Ministry of Education MWTL Multiple Ways of Teaching Learners (Bangladesh) NFE Non-Formal Education NER Net Enrolment Ratio NGO Non-Governmental Organization NPA National Plan of Action NWFP North West Frontier Province (Pakistan) PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal PSDP Primary School Development Programme PTI Primary Training Institute RBA Rights-Based Approach SPW Students Partnership Worldwide (Nepal) SRGBV School-Related Gender-Based Violence SSA Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (India) SSHE School Sanitation and Hygiene Education SWAp Sector-Wide Approach TLM Teaching–Learning Materials UNGEI United Nations Girls' Education Initiative UBE Universal Basic Education UPE Universal Primary Education VEC Village Education Committee WATSAN Water and Sanitation WFP World Food Programme WHO World Health Organization YES Youth Empowerment Scheme (Pakistan) ix PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA TERMINOLOGY Gender equality means that girls/women and boys/men have equal conditions for realizing their full human rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from, economic, social, cultural and political development. It is the equal valuing by society of the similarities and differences of girls/women and boys/men, and the roles they play. Gender equity is the process of being fair to boys/men and girls/women. To ensure fairness, measures must often be put in place to compensate for the existing historical and social disadvantages. Equity is a means, while equality and equitable outcomes are the results. Gender parity in education is about giving every boy and girl the opportunity to have access to education and go to school. The drive to put equal numbers of boys and girls into school is referred to as achieving gender parity in education. Gender Parity Index (GPI) – commonly used to assess gender difference – is the value of an indicator for girls divided by that for boys. A value less than 1 indicates difference in favour of boys, whereas a value near 1 indicates that parity has been more or less achieved. Stereotypes (related to gender or other aspects of difference) are ideas held by some people about members of particular groups, based solely on membership in that group. They can be positive (black men are good basketball players) or negative (women do not understand mathematics). Used negatively, stereotyping statements reveal prejudice often resulting in discriminatory behaviours. Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). x PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA SUMMARY South Asian countries are dedicated to furthering education as a fundamental human right, and this was affirmed at the governmental meeting in Islamabad in 2002. It was here that all eight States1 pledged to assemble resources to provide ‘free, inclusive, gender responsive quality basic education for all’. This commitment has also been reflected in the ongoing EFA Mid-Decade Assessment,2 whereby the principles of non- discrimination, participation and equality were greatly espoused. Essentially the limitless, positive benefits that Education For All can bring, both towards individuals’ well-being and their wider community, are immense: from intangible values such as self worth to broader national economic growth. It is this realization that is now dawning as South Asian countries strive towards achieving the Millennium Development Goals and beyond. Being female is often a disadvantage in South Asia. And although this is slowly changing, gender disparities continue to persist in the twenty-first century throughout entire education systems (at home and in the wider community) across South Asia. The ‘real’ or so-called lived experiences of children still largely remain unheard. There is a need to look at what happens at home, in classrooms and in their communities. Questions need to be asked, such as: ‘What jobs are girls doing in the household and outside?’, ‘Are they looking after ill family members and younger siblings?’, ‘How can these potential barriers be minimized?’, ‘How do teachers interact with students?’, ‘Do girls participate meaningfully?’ and ‘Do teaching–learning materials and subject choices challenge gender stereotypes?’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). Such questions should be a part of wider mechanisms at both grassroots and policy level, in order to achieve the different goals and articles of the CRC, EFA and MDGs (see Annex 1). xi PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA It is now time to focus on qualitative (as well as quantitative) gender-related data, because complex interrelated issues can be difficult to track through data sets such as the NER or GPI. Whilst such data obviously sheds light upon parts of the lives of girls, it by no means offers a complete picture. Questions such as which children are not in school and why, and what can be done to reduce barriers to participation and learning for different children, can only be addressed through participatory qualitative means. Furthermore, the complexity of inequalities relating to language, class, caste, gender, ethnic/religious background, disability and other differences that create deprivation (such as internally displaced children) must drive governments to find better strategies to accommodate diversity that goes beyond schooling. ‘For education to be empowering (MDG3) it needs to result in equality of opportunities and in girls having more choice in their lives’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). Even though most government schools in South Asia have abolished tuition fees, parents still face many challenges: many have to pay for textbooks, exams, uniforms, private tuition and school meals. These hidden costs make their children’s education inequitable, i.e. if parents have a son and a daughter, and they can only afford the costs for one, then more often than not the son will benefit. Hence it is essential to cut the hidden costs for families because ‘as long as education is costly or in short supply, access will continue to be “rationed”, with those who are wealthy, urban and male at the front of the queue …’ (Aikman and Unterhalter, 2005). Many parents in Bhutan Bhutan say they cannot afford to send their children to school, or need them at home to work. Officially education is free. One survey, however, revealed that over a period of six months parents had to pay an average of Ngultrum 1729 per student – for uniforms, school feeding, fees and other contributions – and this among a sample where 40 per cent of households had a cash income of only Ngultrum 5000 per year and an average of 3.4 children per family. Source: Black and Stalker (2006); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Quality education, which encompasses issues of equality, relevance of learning, child participation and safety, is essential for the overall development of nations. There are, however, severe barriers to quality education in South Asian countries: these include the poor quality of many teachers’ teaching methods, which results in reduced learning achievements in students, as well as the absenteeism of teachers (perhaps partly related to poor training) and the refusal of so-called higher caste teachers to teach so-called lower caste children. xii PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA In addition, poverty remains a constraint to educational achievement both at the macro-level (poor countries generally have lower levels of enrolment) and the micro- level (children of poor households receive less education). Researchers agree that investment in education as a poverty reduction strategy can enhance the skills and productivity among poor households in the long term. Furthermore, empirical evidence suggests that poverty declines as the education level of the head of the household increases. Thus to remedy the vicious cycle of poverty and poor education levels, countries will have to seriously implement a package of policy measures, comprising enhanced budgetary allocations, provision of proper school infrastructure and trained female teachers. In these efforts the governments will need the active participation of private and non-government sectors, the local communities and international development partners. Countries in South Asia have already developed and implemented different policies and interventions aimed at increasing the enrolment of girls, and have also begun to encourage retention rates and wider well-being schemes. However, there is much more that can and should be done. Essentially, these examples of quality, gender- equitable education programmes must be identified, monitored, shared and scaled up up in the region. STRATEGIES TOWARDS QUALITY RIGHTS-BASED EDUCATION 1. Equality of opportunities / Right to to education: girls and boys are offered the same chances to access school Make education free free of costs; schools (distance, infrastructure, curriculum) accessible to all learners. Provide incentives for poor and marginalized families (stipend, scholarship, school feeding); non-formal education (NFE) for older, out-of-school and hard-to- reach children. Support Early Childhood Care and Development (ECCD) programmes for the most disadvantaged. Involve parents and communities in school–community partnerships. Develop adequate water and sanitation (WATSAN) infrastructure. Ensure that there are sufficient female teachers to support and act as role models for girls. xiii PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 2. Equality of pedagogy / Right in in education: girls and boys receive the same respectful treatment and attention, follow the same curricula, enjoy teaching methods and tools free of stereotypes and gender bias Provide enough, well-trained (male and female) teachers who can use a diversity of teaching methods. Develop policies that protect children from harassment, abuse and other forms of violence, including gender-based violence, bullying, physical and mental punishment. Ensure that curriculum and textbooks are academically and pedagogically of good quality, with positive images of boys and girls and other aspects of diversity; challenging prevailing stereotypes. 3. Equality of outcomes / Right through education: as a result of education and beyond, in society more generally Create continuing and equal opportunities for lifelong learning, professional training, empowerment and positive participation in society (decision-making power, control of resources, etc.). Adapted from: Seel (2006); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). This issues paper is a step towards encouraging coordination amongst countries in South Asia. In doing so it presents a compilation of positive initiatives and remaining challenges based on evidence from the South Asia region. It is meant to generate further dialogue and action, and it has as its intended audience policy-makers and practitioners – including teacher educators – as well as (inter)national organizations. It is hoped that new sources of insight will be uncovered, and that a torch will be shone on the future potential of South Asia’s children, especially those that have traditionally been excluded. Chapter 1 provides the context, taking account of the region’s diversity, and presents the holistic benefits of girls’ education. This is followed by Chapter 2 which discusses some of the barriers to girls’ education in relation to wider issues of social exclusion, disempowerment and state policies. Following on from this, Chapter 3 presents an integrated approach to health and education through a child rights framework, focusing on girl friendly schools and tackling gender-based violence. Chapter 4 continues to discuss aspects of quality education. In conclusion, Chapters 5 and 6 collate and present recommendations and emphasize that the time to scale up positive interventions is now! xiv PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA This issues paper was initially conceived of as a synthesis of a set of papers being published by UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI, and only later evolved into an issues paper in its own right. It therefore draws substantially on other papers in the series, particularly Heijnen-Maathuis (2008), Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008), Gunawardena and Jayaweera (2008), Ramachandran (2008) and Chitrakar (2008). xv PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 1 THE SOUTH ASIA CONTEXT: PROGRESS AND CHALLENGES 1.1 Regional Diversity Cross-country comparisons are difficult across such a diverse region, and even South Asia is a culturally and more challenging within countries where economically diverse region with vast urban–rural and socio-economic generally strong patriarchal and disparities are acutely evident. For hierarchical social structures, which are example, in Bangladesh the government often expressed through inequitable manages fewer than half of the total gender disparities. For example, number of primary schools, the other half according to Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008), being run by NGOs, and in Bhutan the overall literacy in South Asia is ‘confined difficult topography and remoteness of to 48% for females and 72% for males.’ most rural areas present several logistical So despite (inter)national commitments, challenges. ‘the enrolment rate between girls and boys in South Asia still shows However, what is common across South discrepancy between promise and reality Asia is the use of child labour, and the … [whilst] Sri Lanka and the Maldives work that girls are involved in is often have achieved gender parity, in concealed. Large cities in South Asia Bangladesh there are now more girls attract many impoverished or street-based than boys enrolled. Enrolment3 has children, the majority of whom have no increased throughout the region, but access to education and are vulnerable to access for children from low income and exploitation and abuse – especially girls. socially marginalized groups remains a Furthermore, HIV/AIDS is a growing challenge’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). epidemic, particularly in India where 1 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA formal education systems are yet to also part of their wider society, and may systematically educate young people adopt and espouse class and caste- about risks and preventative measures based discriminatory practices. (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). 1.2 Is South Asia Different From Other In situations of conflict or natural Regions? disaster, quality education is paramount: it can be both life-sustaining and life- Poverty, uneven development and saving, providing both physical protection historical colonial legacy are not unique and psychological and social well- to this region. However, the estimated being.4 Armed conflicts (notably in 400 million young people aged 12–24, Nepal, Sri Lanka and Afghanistan) and accounting for close to 30 per cent of all natural disasters (tsunami, earthquakes) young people in the developing world, is have a devastating impact on access, a significant characteristic attendance and learning outcomes, which (Ramachandran, 2008). This in turn have serious repercussions on ‘demographic dividend’ is said to have children’s educational futures. For contributed towards a third of East Asia’s particularly vulnerable groups, such as economic miracle. ‘The recent success internally displaced girls, those in stories of East and Southeast Asia and refugee camps, girls with disabilities, or Ireland suggest that development those from ethnic minorities, the requires a combination of factors … challenges are compounded. Interactions among the many relevant factors have the potential to set off Throughout the region public schools virtuous development spirals and to halt face neglect, with further challenges of vicious spirals …’ (Bloom, 2005). The piecemeal management and poorly potential impact in South Asia is even trained teachers. Teacher absenteeism is greater. high, especially in Pakistan, Nepal and India where teachers may be poorly paid The World Development Report 2007 and the profession perceived in a (World Bank, 2007a) predicts that this mediocre light. Teaching is often based youth demographic will steadily grow on rote learning and the school (except in Pakistan) and will peak in the curriculum lacking in practical next 25 years. Approximately 45 per cent exploration. Ineffective government of these young people are female. The schools have contributed to a two-tiered potential contribution that they could system of education (government and play in the future workforce is immense, private) across South Asia, which may but in order for that to be recognized exacerbate inequalities based on gender, girls must receive quality education. As social class and caste (Heijnen- Ramachandran states, ‘What places Maathuis, 2008). After all, teachers are South Asia apart from East Asia is the 2 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA persistence of gender inequality. Yet, the control over the immediate environment potential of exponential economic (family health, nutrition, education of growth and the promise of accelerated children). They also contribute towards educational development have instilled a women’s empowerment, enabling them sense of optimism and hope’ essentially to make informed choices (Ramachandran, 2008). and also negotiate the world around them from a position of strength. Many 1.3 The Holistic Benefits of Girls’ experts argue that promoting basic Education education (of at least eight to 10 years) could enhance livelihood options and There is no doubt that educating girls is help reduce poverty levels – recognizing an essential part of winning the fight that women share a major burden of against poverty. ‘On average, an work and their contribution to ensuring educated girl boosts the income of her the survival of their families is essential family and her community; has fewer, (see Annex 2). Hence the education of more healthy children; and is less likely girls is an important and critical to contract HIV/AIDS’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, investment (Ramachandran, 2008). 2008). The benefits of girls’ education extend far beyond the local community. Education is the source of overcoming Studies show that increasing the number repressive traditions that have of educated girls in a country fosters neglected the rights of girls and women. economic growth; educated women on Educated mothers are in fact more average receive higher lifetime likely to send both girls and boys to earnings,5 which can contribute to wider school and to keep them in school political stability and reduce healthcare longer. Empirical evidence also costs. For example, more productive suggests that the children of educated farming due to increased female mothers have higher survival rates education accounts for 43 per cent of through infancy and childhood as their the decline in malnutrition achieved mothers are likely to be more aware between 1970 and 1995.6 about nutrition, hygiene and healthcare. Furthermore, education increases Girls’ education has often been women’s knowledge about controlling positioned as a catalyst that could turn a fertility and access to family planning difficult situation around (Shultz, 1993; services. Essentially, educated women Herz and Sperling, 2004; Dreze and Sen, enjoy an improved status in family, 1995). Increased educational levels community and society (Mujahid- among women are linked to greater Mukhtar, 2008). 3 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 2 BARRIERS TO EDUCATION 2.1 The Extent of Inequality and ‘Understanding the patterns of social Social Exclusion exclusion is crucial for identifying successful interventions. Who these Firstly, it is important to point out that children are, where they live and why there is a lack of reliable data on they are excluded is difficult to know diversity, i.e. those not from urban as countries have no information on middle-class dominant caste school participation disaggregated by backgrounds within South Asian subgroups subject to exclusion. countries, including socially excluded Analysing data from different sources children. This often screens the may, however, give us an idea of the severity of structural and local reality, and it seems that nearly three- exclusionary practices, thus quarters of girls who do not come to preventing governments in South Asia school are from socially excluded from responding effectively. As groups’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). Heijnen-Maathuis (2008) highlighted, little importance has so far been Diversity needs to be seen in a attached to the education of street- positive light, because it is the failure working children, children of migrant to do so which leads to workers, children with disabilities and underachievement: ‘it is diversity other disadvantaged children, accompanied by derogation and compared with the education of discrimination that leads to exclusion’ middle-class children.7 (Lewis and Lockheed, 2006). Children 4 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA In India India, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is a government flagship designed to get all children into school, especially girls disadvantaged by caste, tribe or disability. It relies on community participation and monitoring with an emphasis on the recruitment of women and members of disadvantaged groups. The initiative evaluates every aspect of the learning space against gender-friendly standards, including the provision of safe water and sanitation. To ensure the retention of girls, schools serve midday meals and offer girls scholarships for uniforms and school supplies. Source: Jha (2004a,b); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). can be discriminated against by where ‘other’ have been established which they live (rural/remote areas, urban result in parallel education systems slums, refugee camps), how they live (in within countries: for ‘hard-to-reach’ poverty, chronically ill, malnourished), children, or for children with disabilities, and who they are (with disabilities, which are set against private schools for gender, from ethnic, language, religious the privileged (Heijnen, 2003).The minorities). Often special programmes question remains whether they will result for children identified as ‘different’ or in more equal opportunities for all In Nepal a pilot programme has targeted girls from Dalit communities through a process of community mobilization and trust building. Dalit castes are historically butchers, milk sellers, drummers, town criers (Khadgi) and sweepers (Dyola). The stigma of the Dalit label leads to many children refusing to enrol in school, especially if the school lies outside their immediate neighbourhood. In the school context discrimination often continues both from peers and teachers. Teachers may claim to be unbiased, but it is unlikely they would visit a Dalit household or allow a Dalit student to enter their own house. It is this kind of customary discrimination that is most difficult to eradicate. Family support for Dalit children – girls in particular – to enrol and stay in school is generally poor and thus affects children’s study. The negative influences range from active disruption of study by unsupportive parents, to basic logistical issues such as lack of space or light for studying. Though the government has created a Dalit scholarship programme, this does not sufficiently take into account costs of textbooks, stationery, clothing and fees for exams. Still, the girls involved in this pilot project say they are happy in school and teachers treat them well. However, what they feel very uncomfortable with is the ‘Dalit’ label of the scholarship. Source: UNESCO Kathmandu (2005a); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 5 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA beyond education in schools – or are they Uneven playing field from the start just reinforcing exclusionary practices? Issues of safety and security around school affecting girls As Chitrakar rightly asserts, ‘Barriers take Lack of relevance of school to the lives different forms – e.g. barriers to access, of children. barriers to quality services and barriers to relevant curricula and/or pedagogy … And whilst these are a useful starting point barriers to girls’ education can also take they are by no means the complete differential forms across nations/societies experiential worlds of girls and boys (and depending upon the socio-economic, indeed their wider social relationships). religious and cultural contexts. These are all very important factors but are Furthermore, barriers can be perceived as mostly external and observable. Chitrakar either intrinsic or extrinsic to girls in (2008) elaborates that critical social relation to how they experience theorists can offer a much deeper educational participation … some barriers perspective into the social contexts of girls can be obvious while others are subtle and and boys at household, community, school, tacit’ (Chitrakar, 2008). The UNICEF district education or ministry of education website (2007) concentrates on the levels, whereby power relations and following barriers, which are generic in underlying organizational assumptions nature, focusing on educating and (often implicit) can be unpacked so that schooling girls: interventions are not superficial (see Family poverty Stromquist, 1995). Hence he calls for a Weak legal frameworks around dualistic approach towards examining education barriers to girls’ education (see Table 1). Table 1 Defining the Scope for Investigating Barriers to Girls’ Education and Gender Equality in South Asian Countries Adapted from UNICEF (2007) Adapted from Heward (1999) 1.Family earning – opportunity 1.Opportunities for girls to have a voice and acknowledged costs of education as active agents rather than passive consumers of education and development 2.Provision of legal frameworks 2.Extent to which debates have been allowed to explore around education ‘education issues well beyond access, enrolment and level of attainment to that of the micro-processes of schooling, curricular content, meanings and the way in which girls and women construct their understanding of education’ 3.Expectation and treatments of 3.Meaning and values attached to educational attainment – girls and boys right from the beyond economic to social and political pay-off stage of early childhood 4.Issues of safety and security 4.Consideration of historical, social and cultural context – around school affecting girls gender, plurality and education 5.Relevance of school to the 5.Gender aware and sensitive institutions lives of children Source: Chitrakar (2008) 6 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA A sensitive and in-depth approach is are denied the opportunity to pursue a essential in South Asia where gender life outside of domesticity. Indeed, disparities (exacerbated by poverty) are exclusion can be compounded by wider far greater than anywhere else in the structural issues: some parents may not world. South Asia is one of the few send their daughters to school because regions in the world where men of poor quality teachers, harassment, outnumber women and this deficit ‘stems poor school infrastructure, etc. Hence from lifelong discrimination against girls parents may not perceive any ‘returns’ and women, particularly from inferior from sending their daughter to school. nutrition and healthcare that girls receive early in life and during childbearing According to Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008), years’ (Ramachandran, 2008). In fact, overall costs of educating girls are the disparity is not uniform even across higher compared with those of boys. South Asia – between nations and even These include direct costs both to the between localities. ‘Early marriage and society (separate schools and/or pregnancy, anaemia, sexual violence, expensive schools, i.e. being closer to and poor educational opportunities all settlements and therefore requiring more contribute to ill health among female expensive land, requiring boundary walls, adolescents in this region … education etc.) and the households (e.g. for and improved economic circumstances uniforms or provision for safe transport), alone are likely to be insufficient to or indirect or opportunity costs because change practices that have become girls do more labour in the household culturally, socially, and, in some cases, than boys (Herz et al., 1991). In legally enshrined’ (Visaria, 2002). Not addition, Mujahid-Mukhtar points out only gender or poverty, but also ethnicity, that the returns on investing in a girl’s language, social status or caste, are education do not accrue directly to her major obstacles to access and parents, who make this investment successful completion of primary decision,9 but to the girl’s husband and education. in-laws. On the other hand, boys are more likely to support their parents in old Girls in South Asia may face several age or contribute to the household’s social exclusionary practices on a day- future sustenance. Essentially, parents to-day basis (some obvious whilst others are often lacking information about the are more subtle8 ). There is still a strong returns to female education, and/or preference for sons in many households, regard the risks associated with which transpires as parents often valuing investment in female education as the education of their son above that of greater than those with boys. ‘Thus their daughter. Furthermore, early policy has to focus on reducing the costs marriage and teenage pregnancy are still of and changing the structures of delivery widespread in the villages of most South of schooling services, on the one hand, Asian countries and therefore these girls and interventions to change parental 7 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA attitudes and household behaviour on the survival, and to ensure sustainable other’ (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). There is learning outcomes as well as to also need for action at the level of challenge exclusionary forces (UNICEF, macro-economic policy and the labour 2002a).Teachers are the agents of market, because as Herz et al. (1991) change and efforts to improve quality argue, a vicious circle ensues whereby: must begin with an understanding of how ‘men earn more, making the returns to children learn and they must male schooling higher, so boys are sent demonstrate respect for diversity. to school more often than girls. Girls Teacher training should be improved to then grow up lacking the education they include reflective inquiry so that they are need to compete. Cultural traditions may able when seeking explanations for lack reflect and reinforce economics, of student achievement to consider especially in poor rural settings’ (Herz et inadequacies in content, methodology al., 1991). and the learning environment (to be discussed further in Chapter 6) (Heijnen- More attention needs to be paid to the Maathuis, 2008). overall educational experience of girls, because access to education of poor 2.2 Understanding Empowerment quality is no access. Poor quality education is costly as it results in high Empowerment can be difficult to fully repetition and dropout rates. Improved comprehend and quantify, although there quality is crucial for retention and are now indicators such as the Gender Loreto School, Sealdah (India) is a private school, but can be highlighted as an example of best practice in its pursuit of excellence and equity. The school has moved away from education for a privileged few, towards community schooling, including Kolkata’s street children. Loreto has integrated children from poor and rich families without resorting to any form of selection, yet has maintained a track record of excellent academic results based on a non-competitive ideology, defying the logic that social class counts in the success or failure of a school. Loreto Sealdah opened its doors to at least 50 per cent of non-fee-paying students from nearby slums, ‘bustees’ and poorer areas of Kolkata, who receive free uniforms, food and books from the school and are subsidized by the fee-paying students. Education about human values and practising these are an important part of school life, both for students and staff and have been translated into sound educational practices. What is unique about the school is its ability to combine ‘best practice’ in terms of academic excellence and ‘best practice’ in terms of children’s rights to non-discrimination, optimal development, participation and protection. Source: Jessop (2000); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 8 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Empowerment Measure (GEM), and – are several spheres that empowerment perhaps more inclusive – the GEEI operates on, namely: social, material (developed by the Beyond Access and psychological. In order to assess Programme). Yet if one is to fully realize whether a child in actively engaged and the benefits of education through participating in their lived experiences eradicating inequalities and exclusionary the following sorts of questions should practices (at both the local and national be asked through qualitative studies: levels), it is essential to realize that good quality education is tantamount to empowerment. Access to quality EMPOWERMENT ANALYSIS education can provide girls with the opportunity to broaden their life Social: experience and provide access to new What kinds of relationships exist resources and skills, which in turn they between the family members? can utilize in their wider communities. Is the family isolated or part of a social network? Essentially, ‘empowerment’ can be What resources exist/can be used? described10 as both the process and the Do social values play a role in their outcome of effective life skills. Largely social situation? focusing on: Ways of thinking: knowledge of the Material: environment and its resources; critical What does the girl/family live on? consciousness to question the status Has the girl’s wider family any skills which could improve the quo; aspirations to strive for a better material situation? life; skills in problem solving. What kind of accommodation do Ways of feeling: feelings of they have? competence; feelings of self esteem; feelings of control over the events of Psychological: one’s life. How does the girl feel? Ways of behaving: autonomy; Are there physical illnesses in the determination to make decisions and family – what significance? follow them through. What characterizes the emotional (As cited in McKee et al., 2000) climate in the family? In order for a child to be fully empowered Source: SDC (2006). they must be able to negotiate the world around them, being involved in decision- making processes and confident and For great visionaries such as Amartya comfortable in a variety of social Sen, empowerment is a process whereby environments. As indicated below, there ‘There can be little doubt that the 9 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA community or culture to which a person (2001) point out: ‘the cultures of South belongs can have a major influence on Asia are largely gender stratified, the way he or she sees a situation or characterized by patrilineal descent, views a decision … note has to be taken patrilocal residence, inheritance and of local knowledge, regional norms, and succession practices that exclude particular perceptions and values that women, and hierarchical relations in are common in a specific community … which the patriarch or his relatives have but this does not, in any plausible way, authority over family members. Levels undermine or eliminate the possibility and patterns of female autonomy vary and role of choice and reasoning about considerably within the region … region identity’ (Sen, 2006). plays the major conditioning role …’ The social and educational status of Muslim Thus, fundamentally, formal education girls in the Maldives, Kerala and Tamil alone ‘is not adequate to empower Nadu (India) and Bangladesh is women and neutralize the accumulated appreciably better than that of Hindus in distortions of the past. The content of Rajasthan or Eastern Uttar Pradesh. education, the context in which it is Equally, the situation of Muslim groups imparted and the “intangible” inputs are in Baluchistan is vastly different from all equally important’ (Ramachandran, those in Punjab (Pakistan) 2008). While economic disparities and (Ramachandran, 2008). social inequalities are certainly important, a number of researchers argue In relation to the spread of HIV/AIDS, that cultural beliefs and practices and gender relations put girls and women at a regional characteristics play an greater risk in this region. Education has important role in mediating the the potential to empower them to make relationship between education, health informed decisions and give them the and empowerment (Colclough et al., confidence to say ‘No’. Yet, due to the 2000; Jayaweera, 1997; Kumar and resistance to reproductive and sexual Vlassoff, 1999). Jeejibhoy and Sathar health education in the region, Working for Better Life (WBL), an NGO in Bangladesh, believes in children’s empowerment. School debate programmes are used as the main tool for children’s empowerment. WBL organizes student debate programmes in lower and middle secondary schools on social issues. Children come up with issues they want to discuss themselves, and topics have varied from domestic violence, environmental health issues, school fees, gender-based violence to corporal punishment, poverty and climate change. Programmes within schools and between schools involve more than 600 secondary schools and madrassas across Bangladesh. Source: www.workingforbetterlife.org; cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 10 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA governments and civil society groups are Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) recommends compelled to address the issue indirectly the following options for generating – perhaps with devastating impacts. greater funds: 2.3 State Expenditure on Education 1. Percentage of GDP allocated to Education: The most important source According to Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008), of funds for the education sector compared with other low income would be higher allocations by the countries, public expenditure on South Asian governments. At present, education as a percentage of GDP except for the Maldives, none of the remains low in South Asia, particularly countries allocate more than 2–3 per in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Nepal and cent of GDP to education. This share Pakistan11 (despite the fact that public should be enhanced to 4–6 per cent, expenditure on education as a which would be equivalent to almost percentage of GDP has slightly doubling their present funds for increased during the past decade). Even education. Sri Lanka, with a previous record of high public spending on social programmes, 2. Tax for Education: Governments has cut expenditure on education should consider imposing a nominal particularly since 1987. Mujahid- (say 1%) tax on luxury items to be Mukhtar also stresses that weak spent on education. This is being financial management and antiquated considered in India and was also budgetary practices mitigate the imposed in Pakistan (termed Iqra tax) effectiveness of public expenditure in about a decade ago but was most, if not all, of South Asian discontinued after a change of countries. Furthermore, low levels of government. utilization and uptake can have disastrous knock-on effects. For Nonetheless, to increase resources for instance, she remarks that in Pakistan, education, governments need to ‘according to rough estimates, almost improve the collection of general 33% of the development budget purpose revenue. Tax policy and allocated to the education sector in administration need to improve and Pakistan for the year 2005/06 lapsed more effort should be diverted towards due to lack of capacity among education collection of non-tax revenue, staff to prepare projects, inability to including user charges on public recruit qualified staff for timely project utilities and services.12 implementation, [and] delays in releases of funds’ (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). 3. Public–Private Partnerships in Underspending affects all vulnerable Education: As most South Asian groups, and girls especially within these. countries are poor, public resources 11 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA are not likely to be sufficient to systems to meet the needs of all learners.’ improve girls’ access to education of (Dakar Framework for Action: Clause 14) some minimum quality. In addition, due to poor public sector ‘Economic policies matter for girls’ management, the efficiency of public education. Although, on the surface, expenditure is low. Hence, economic policies may seem far disproportionately higher resources removed from children’s everyday lives, would be required if girls’ education they are the root cause of much of the has to be provided solely by the poverty that children face. Opportunities government. The public sector, missed in childhood, such as good therefore, needs to forge partnerships nutrition and education, can cause with the private and non-government irreversible harm to children, and trap sectors so as to increase the outreach them in long-term poverty … Pro-poor, and quality of girls’ education. This pro-child economic policies underpin may involve public financing of action to tackle poverty among children, private delivery of education, for and are critical for breaking which necessary legal and regulatory intergenerational poverty cycles. Thus frameworks and institutions need to they can play an essential role in be put in place. meeting the Millennium Development Goals’ (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). 4. External Assistance: All South Asian countries receive substantial bilateral Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) elaborates by and multilateral assistance from stating that wider economic policies several international development have in fact a far-reaching affect on partners. At the World Education children: firstly, their impact on Forum 2000, donors pledged to household livelihoods; and secondly, support developing countries, their impact on financing key public especially in sub-Saharan Africa and services essential for child development South Asia: and well-being, such as health and education. Furthermore, the extent to ‘The EFA 2000 Assessment highlights that which growth can help reduce poverty is the challenge of education for all is greatest influenced by levels of inequality: in sub-Saharan Africa, in South Asia, and in ‘growth can be three times more the least developed countries. Accordingly, effective in reducing poverty where while no country in need should be denied inequality is low than if it is high. Given international assistance, priority should be the dramatic rise in global inequality given to these regions and countries. since the mid-1980s, this implies that Countries in conflict or undergoing substantially greater redistribution of reconstruction should also be given special income and assets is needed to reduce attention in building up their education poverty’ (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). 12 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA She goes on to stipulate that there are concentrated in labour-intensive three key areas of redistribution that sectors with the potential to employ governments should focus on that may unskilled or low-skilled people. In have strong impacts on families and thus many contexts this means agriculture children in poverty: and micro-enterprise. As growth in Redistribution of productive assets, these sectors may also increase such as land, and of income. children’s workloads, they may need to Countries with equitable distribution be combined with policy and of land and access to education grow programmatic measures to ensure faster and convert growth into poverty children’s education. reduction faster because poor people Investing in basic services to promote are the drivers of growth, rather than human development, in particular the eventual beneficiaries. health, education and water and Adequately sized cash transfers can sanitation. As well as its intrinsic also help poor people build up benefits, and contribution to improved productive assets. health, education is particularly critical Ensuring pro-poor growth. Growth in enabling poor people to benefit from will reduce poverty most when it is and drive economic growth. 13 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 3 POVERTY AND VULNERABILITY 3.1 Vulnerability in South Asia: the percentage of population covered by An Overview safety nets (public or private); (iii) the extent and outreach of philanthropy in the Vulnerability, generally, relates to a country; (iv) the frequency and percentage population’s exposure to drastic of population likely to be affected by livelihood shocks, environmental conflicts (both external and internal), degradation, natural disasters, absence of natural disasters and epidemics, etc. As safety nets, low levels of health and data on most of these variables is not nutrition, and political strife or conflict in available in developing countries, region- a country. The South Asian region has had specific proxy variables are used instead. a plethora of such examples only within For example, in South Asia, percentage of the last couple of years, including: the rural population could be used as proxy internal conflicts of the Liberation Tigers for population dependent on subsistence of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka and agriculture; other indicators could be the Maoist rebels in Nepal; the 2005 share of agriculture in GDP, sustainable earthquake in Pakistan; and the tsunami access to improved water and sanitation, in December 2005 that greatly affected and prevalence of HIV’ (Mujahid-Mukhtar, India, the Maldives and Sri Lanka. 2008). ‘Variables generally used to assess the According to Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008), magnitude and extent of vulnerability are: available quantitative data reflects that (i) the percentage of population South Asian countries are a ‘vulnerable’ dependent on subsistence agriculture; (ii) population (see Table 2). These countries 14 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Table 2 South Asia: Vulnerability in the Region % of rural Value added % of population without Prevalence population by agriculture sustainable access to improved of HIV (2004) (% of GDP)* sanitation and water source 2005 2004 Water Sanitation Afghanistan** 71.2 – 60 33 <0.01 Bangladesh 75.3 21.0 26 61 <0.1 Bhutan 89.2 – 38 30 <0.1 India 71.5 19.0 14 67 0.9 Maldives 70.8 – 17 41 <0.2 Nepal 84.7 40.0 10 65 0.5 Pakistan 65.5 22.0 9 41 0.1 Sri Lanka 84.8 17.0 21 9 <0.1 Source: UNDP (2006) * Source: World Bank (2007a) ** Source: UNDP (2004): data available for 2003 are predominantly rural economies with 3.2 Development Profiles a large percentage of the population working in the primary sector, which According to Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) in increases the ‘vulnerability’ of its people the context of HDI, recent evidence whose livelihood is adversely affected (UNDP, 2006) suggests that South Asian significantly by any natural disaster, such countries (excluding Sri Lanka and the as the recent floods in the summer of Maldives) rank in the bottom 30 per cent 2007 in India, Nepal and Bangladesh. of countries worldwide, i.e. below the rank of 125 out of a total 177 countries ‘Except for Nepal, where agriculture is ranked (Table 3). The GDI values, the single largest sector, South Asian although lower than HDI values, reflect a economies are most dependent on the slightly better rank, and interestingly, the services sector and not on the “reliable” GEM ranks available for three South manufacturing sector, unlike the Asian countries show improvement, developed nations. With the exception of perhaps mainly due to the increase in Sri Lanka, the percentages of population the political participation of women in without sustainable access to improved these countries. sanitation are high, ranging from 30 per cent in Bhutan to 67 per cent in India. Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) goes on to state Exposure to deadly disease, e.g. HIV, is that ‘with almost one-half of their less than 0.1 per cent except in India population, i.e. women, being mostly (0.9%) and Nepal (0.5%)’ (Mujahid- illiterate and economically inactive with Mukhtar, 2008). low earnings, South Asian countries 15 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Table 3 South Asia: Human Development and Gender Empowerment Profiles Human Development Gender Development Gender Empowerment Index (HDI) Index (GDI) Measure (GEM) Value Rank Value Rank Value Rank Afghanistan* 0.340 173 0.300 143 – – Bangladesh 0.530 137 0.524 102 0.374 67 Bhutan 0.538 135 – – – – India 0.611 126 0.591 96 – – Maldives 0.739 98 – – – – Nepal 0.527 138 0.513 106 – – Pakistan 0.539 134 0.513 105 0.377 66 Sri Lanka 0.755 93 0.749 68 0.372 69 Source: UNDP (2006) * Source: UNDP (2004): data available for 2002 have, not surprisingly, a high incidence placed very low in the poverty ranking. of poverty (Table 4). The Human Poverty With reference to the national poverty Index (HPI),13 which shows deprivation lines, all countries display a high in the three dimensions of the HDI, percentage of poor population, from one- reveals that, except for the Maldives and quarter of the people in Sri Lanka to half Sri Lanka, South Asian countries are of the people in Bangladesh. In India, Table 4 South Asia: Poverty Profile Human Poverty % population below income poverty line Ratio of Index (HPI-1) National richest 10% $1 a day $2 a day poverty line to poorest Value Rank 1990–2004 1990–2004 1990–2003 10% Afghanistan* 59.3 94 – 70.0 – 7.17** Bangladesh 44.2 85 36.0 82.8 49.8 6.8 Bhutan 39.0 71 – – – – India 31.3 55 34.7 79.9 28.6 7.3 Maldives 16.9 36 – – – – Nepal 38.1 68 24.1 68.5 30.9 15.8 Pakistan 36.3 65 17.0 73.6 32.6 6.5 Sri Lanka 17.7 38 5.6 41.6 25.0 8.1 Source: UNDP (2006) * Source: UNDP (2004): data available for 2002 ** Estimated for richest 20% to poorest 20% 16 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Pakistan and Nepal, almost one-third of levels of enrolment) and the micro- the people are poor by national standards level (children of poor households of poverty. If the $2-a-day poverty receive less education). standard is considered, the percentages Investment in education as a poverty of poor population rise drastically in reduction strategy which can enhance South Asia: Nepal (69%), Pakistan the skills and productivity among poor (74%), India (80%) and Bangladesh households. (83%). Income inequality, based on the ratio of the share of income of the In South Asian countries in general, richest 10 per cent to that of the poorest females still receive less education than 10 per cent, is fairly high in South Asian males (with the notable exception of the countries, ranging between 7 in Pakistan Maldives14 ). As Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) and Bangladesh and 16 in Nepal’ points out, because of scarcity of (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). financial (and other) resources, low income countries are more likely than 3.3 Poverty and Employment richer countries to have low overall enrolment ratios and also low gender As Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) remarks, the parity in enrolments (see Figure 1). Poor relationship between education and households are not able to afford poverty is two-fold: education for their children, either due to Poverty as a constraint to educational lack of financial resources to meet achievement both at the macro-level school needs or due to the loss of (poor countries generally have lower sending a ‘little earning hand’ to school. Figure 1 Impact of Income on Enrolment 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Female Net Enrolment (%) 30 20 0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000 50,000 GDP per Capita Source: Country data derived from UNDP (2006) • South Asian countries 17 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA She establishes this point by stating that Nepal) and other special measures and ‘in Pakistan, the net primary enrolment incentives. rate of 36.6 per cent for poor households is much lower than the 59.3 per cent for Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) asserts that her non-poor households; for female estimates show that per capita income education, these rates are 30.2 per cent and female teachers play a significant and 52.3 per cent, respectively’ positive role in determining female net (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). enrolment in primary school. In addition, poverty is also manifested in terms of Interestingly, data available for five access to basic social and economic South Asian countries (Bangladesh, infrastructure. According to Mujahid- India, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri Lanka) Mukhtar (2008), empirical evidence shows that with the exception of suggests that poverty declines as the Pakistan, the remaining four countries education level of the head of the have higher girls’ enrolment rates than household increases. In Pakistan, of the the average trend for countries with illiterate heads, 42 per cent of comparable per capita income levels. households are poor, whilst in those with This implies that most countries in South literate heads only 21 per cent are poor. Asia, despite lower incomes, have Increased education is positively related performed relatively better in the context to increased productivity, which, in turn, of female primary enrolments, which generates a higher national (or may be due to certain policies (as in household) income (see Figure 2). Figure 2 Relationship Between Female Income and National Income 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 GDP Per Capita ($PPP) 5000 0 0 5000 10000 15000 20000 Female Income ($PPP) Source: Country data derived from UNDP (2006) • South Asian countries 18 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 4 GENDER MAINSTREAMING 4.1 National Policies: Legal commitments towards improving access Commitments to education for girls and boys and, according to Gunawardena and Gender mainstreaming is a global Jayaweera (2008), Sri Lanka, the approach that holistically promotes Maldives and Bhutan have adopted wider gender equality. ‘Mainstreaming is not policies of general gender an end in itself but a strategy, an mainstreaming evident through resource approach, a means to achieve the goal distribution and institutional provisions, of gender equality. Mainstreaming resulting in a positive impact on girls involves ensuring that gender and boys. They argue that part of the perspectives and attention to the goal of reason gender initiatives have been gender equality are central to all mainstreamed is because of the political activities – policy development, will of the governments, but also research, advocacy/dialogue, legislation, because they were a ‘response to social resource allocation, and planning, demand in countries which had attached implementation and monitoring of a high value to education. Consequently programmes and projects by gender parity has been achieved rapidly, governments, NGOs and the private contributing to features of gender sector’ (Gunawardena and Jayaweera, equality in some sectors beyond the 2008). limits of educational institutions. Expected outcomes of universal Table 5 indicates that all eight South education have not been realized in a Asian countries have made legal context of macro-economic policies that 19 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA did not reduce poverty substantially in to be both ‘top-down’ and ‘bottom-up’ Sri Lanka, nor reach “hard-to-reach” calls for the right and need for islands and mountainous terrain in the education, as well as the political Maldives and Bhutan respectively’ understanding that ‘poverty’ is a wider (Gunawardena and Jayaweera, 2008). structural issue – and not just related to Hence they emphasize the need for there the geographically marginalized. Table 5 Legal Commitments to Providing Access to Education Country Provision Constitution Afghanistan ‘The State shall adopt necessary measures for promotion Article 17 of education in all levels, development of religious education, organizing and improving the conditions of mosques, madrassas and religious centres’ Bangladesh ‘The State shall adopt effective measures for the Article 17 purpose of a. establishing a uniform, mass-oriented and universal system of education and extending free and compulsory education to all children to such stage as may be determined by law’ Bhutan ‘The State shall endeavour to provide education for the Article 9:15 purpose of improving and increasing knowledge, values and skills of the entire population with education being directed towards the full development of the human personality’ India ‘The State shall within the limits of its economic Article 41 capacity make effective provision for securing the right to work, to education …’ ‘The State shall endeavour to provide, within a period of Article 45 ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years’ Maldives ‘Persons shall be free to acquire knowledge and to Article 19 impart knowledge provided that such acquisition and imparting of knowledge does not contravene law’ 20 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Nepal ‘The State shall pursue a policy of raising the standard Article 268 of living of the general public through the development of infrastructures such as education …’ Pakistan ‘Remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory Article 37 (b) secondary education within minimum possible period’ Sri Lanka ‘the complete eradication of illiteracy and the assurance Article 27 (2) h to all persons of the right to universal and equal access to education at all levels’ ‘to promote with special care the interests of children Article 27 (13) and youth so as to ensure the full development, physical, mental, moral, religious, social and to protect them from exploitation and discrimination’ Source: Gunawardena and Jayaweera (2008) 4.2 Sector-Wide Approaches (SWAps) concentrate on in relation to gender in Education mainstreaming. These are: Wider policy environment Since the 1990s, international Multi-level gender analysis development assistance has sought to Policy and strategy development move away from separate donor projects processes towards sector-wide approaches Management and implementation (SWAps), whereby donors aim to structures synchronize their support with Capacity government-led policy frameworks and Monitoring and evaluation frameworks programme plans. These long-term Donor coordination in support of approaches are increasingly being gender equality. aligned with national multi-sectoral poverty reduction strategies, which are in In addition it is critical that, as pursuit of Millennium Development Gunawardena and Jayaweera (2008) Goals (MDGs) (Gunawardena and aptly remark, attention to gender Jayaweera, 2008). SWAps strive to equality is critical if SWAps are to be improve efficiency and effectiveness: to successful in terms of equitable and achieve better outcomes in terms of sustainable development. SWAps and access, completion, quality and equity other major programmes in the eight (Seel, 2006). According to DAC (2000) countries of South Asia are shown in there are seven key areas for SWAps to Table 6. 21 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Table 6 SWAps and other Major Programmes in South Asia Programme Country Name of Programme scope Described as a Afghanistan National Education Strategy Plan through a General and NESP unified vision of the educational needs of Technical the country with targets established for and achieving specific goals: Vocational • Increasing access Education • Improving the quality of education • Improving governance and management standards in the Ministry and devolving greater authority to the schools Bangladesh Primary Education Development Programme Primary SWAp (PEDP) II (2003–09) Education • Quality improvement through Sector organizational development and excluding capacity building NFE • Quality improvement in schools and classrooms • Quality improvement through infrastructure development • Improving and supporting equitable access to quality schooling • PEDP-II implementation, management and monitoring Bhutan Education Development Project Primary and Education • Extend access to primary and secondary secondary Development education education • Improve quality and relevance of education at all levels • Institutional strengthening India Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (2002–10) Primary SWAp • Providing elementary education to all education children (6–14) • Disparity reduction among focus groups in education • Bridge all gender and social gaps at primary stage by 2007 and at elementary level by 2010 • Universal retention by 2010 22 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Maldives Third Education and Training Project Primary and • Education quality improvement secondary • Equitable access to be increased education through the expansion of secondary schools • Institutional strengthening • Training for selected professionals Nepal Basic and Primary Education Programme Primary and PBA (BPEP) II and EFA 2004–09 basic progressing to a education SWAp Adult education Pakistan Education Sector Reform Objectives Literacy, ESR • Improvement of literacy rate general • Universalization of primary education education • Improvement in the quality of education and quality through better teachers, reformed of education curriculum, and efficient examination system • Introducing a third stream of gender and area-specific technical vocational education in tehsil and district levels • Empowerment of district education authorities • Promotion of public–private partnerships • Diversification of general education Sri Lanka Education Sector Development Framework Primary and SWAp and Programme (ESDFP) secondary • Equity in access to education education • Improvement in the quality of education • Efficient and equitable resource allocation • Strengthening governance and delivery services Source: Gunawardena and Jayaweera (2008) 23 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA The degree of importance placed on attitudes of parents and communities to gender mainstreaming varies across the education of girls. The Mahila governments in the region. Sadly, Samakhya began in 1989, and is an according to Gunawardena and example of an important alternative Jayaweera (2008), countries such as the approach to women’s mobilization and Maldives and Sri Lanka, which have empowerment. It eschewed economic already achieved gender parity, are development as the entry point in favour sometimes apathetic towards wider of political mobilization, and entailed mainstreaming concerns (such as an explicit redefinition of education as increasing the number of women in an enabling and empowering platform, employment), and can appear to place as a process whereby women are less emphasis on gender issues than encouraged to think critically, and to some of the other countries still striving demand and acquire the information for gender parity. and skills they need to act collectively for positive change. Many women have 4.3 Lessons Learnt: Approaches to been motivated to bring about change Mainstreaming in the lives of their daughters: to ensure that they have better opportunities than ‘Education does not function in a they did. Sending girls to schools or vacuum and factors other than policies residential learning centres has meant have facilitated or impeded gender in some cases acting against social mainstreaming. A confluence of multiple norms (such as child marriage). In contextual factors surfacing from the addition, women are also actively political, economic and social involved in monitoring of schools, and environment has contributed to the participate in school bodies (such as success or failure of policies … the village and school education Examples of good practices relate to (i) committees) (Gunawardena and political will and incentives, (ii) Jayaweera, 2008). overcoming barriers to the education of girls in a country in which there is a high Essentially Gunawardena and social demand for education, (iii) gender Jayaweera (2008) call for policy sensitizing and empowering women to makers to acknowledge and build from change negative attitudes to the the lessons learnt in the region relating education of girls, (iv) the contribution of to mainstreaming gender. These very large NGOs (e.g. BRAC)’ lessons are: (Gunawardena and Jayaweera, 2008). Limitations caused by the absence of a holistic approach to Gender sensitization programmes such mainstreaming based on a rights- as the Mahila Samakhya in India have based perspective, offering adequate contributed greatly to changing negative incentives that are not limited to 24 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA primary education and are supported and are not mainstreamed in national by legislation and institutional policies. development. Lack of focus on reducing through Limited success of special education policies disparities such as programmes for girls such as stipend urban–rural, provincial/district, programmes that require cost sharing geographical, socio-economic, socio- by families enmeshed in poverty. cultural cum gender, and those Failure to envisage the goal of created by conflict and natural mainstreaming as gender equality and disaster. not gender parity. Impact of the failure to eliminate Over-estimating the potential of non- gender role stereotypes in educational formal education as a substitute for materials, gendered behavioural formal education and at the same expectations in educational time undervaluing its role as a institutions and gender insensitivity complementary strategy to facilitate on the part of teachers and other mainstreaming. educational personnel. Absence of a results-based monitoring Impediments created by inadequacy system at local levels to ensure of conscientization programmes at all effective implementation. levels to counter adherence to son Consequences of a lack of political preference and to oppressive social will to universalize education as a practices that disempower girls and fundamental right. women and reinforce gender Barriers reinforced by macro- inequalities. economic policies that bypass the Negative results of transfer of poor and perpetuate socio-economic international goals to national and gender inequalities and policies without adequate ineffectiveness of poverty reduction consideration of contextual factors in strategies that are compartmentalized each country. 25 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 5 AN INTEGRATED APPROACH TO EDUCATION AND HEALTH 5.1 A CRC Vision of Education and Health Every country in South Asia has signed legal obligation to ensure compulsory and ratified the Convention on the quality education free of costs, based Rights of the Child (CRC), making it a on the principle of non-discrimination. The CRC on the right to education for all: Art. 28 All children have an equal right to education. Art. 2 There shall be no discrimination based on race, ethnicity, religion, gender, disability, social group or any other grounds. The implication is that schools must also promote tolerance and understanding of difference and diversity. The CRC on children as citizens: Art. 12 Children have the right to have their views heard and respected and to participate in decision making on matters that affect their lives. Art. 29 The purpose of education is to (1) develop children’s full potential, (2) prepare them to take responsible roles in a free society, in the spirit of understanding, peace, tolerance, gender equality and friendship among all peoples, (3) develop their respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. 26 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA The CRC on content and style of education: Art. 31 Children have the right to leisure and play. Art. 28 School discipline should be in conformity with the child’s human dignity. Art. 17 Children have the right to information on all matters that affect them, e.g. health education (Art. 24); drug and substance abuse (Art. 33). Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Quality of education is now seen through local (individuals’ perceptions). Child the lens of a rights-based vision of Friendly Schools (CFS) and Inclusive education, which is inclusive, child- Learning-Friendly Environments (ILFE) centred, learning-friendly, relevant, (UNESCO Bangkok, 2005c) are steps in participatory and empowering. This the right direction that transform the CRC vision can only be ascertained through into quality educational practice creating an enabling environment, which (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). should be both national (structural) and A Child Friendly School (CFS) is (1) a An Inclusive Learning Friendly child-seeking school (actively identifying Environment (ILFE) is a formal or excluded children and providing them with non-formal place for learning, where access and learning opportunities) and (2) teachers and administrators seek out a child-centred school (acting in the best all available support for finding and interest of the ‘whole’ child). teaching all children, while providing special support to children Child-friendly schools reflect an who are enrolled but excluded from environment of good quality by being: participation and learning. inclusive and protective of all children; A ‘learning friendly’ environment is academically effective with all children ‘child friendly’ and ‘teacher friendly’ (accepting, addressing and celebrating and stresses the importance of diversity); students and teachers learning healthy for all children (physically and together as a learning community. mentally); It places children at the centre of gender sensitive (access, process, learning and encourages their active outcomes); participation in learning, while also involved with families and fulfilling the needs and interests of communities. teachers. Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 27 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA In Bhutan Bhutan teachers and teacher educators participated in a workshop on Child Rights linked to the use of corporal punishment in schools. One of the more effective classroom management techniques learned dealt with preventing ‘discipline’ problems by using active and joyful teaching methods such as Circle Time. Whilst Circle Time can have an important place in the curriculum as an opportunity to develop speaking and listening skills in children, it also fulfils a critical role in their moral development. Circle Time can provide a forum for discussion of important issues that affect children’s lives such as relationships, non-discrimination, fairness, rights, tolerance, respect, cooperation and non-violent conflict solving, and as such may help to prevent behaviour and classroom management problems. See also: www.teachernet.gov.uk/teachingandlearning/library/circletime. Source: Heijnen (2004); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). A commitment to embody children’s Child friendly schools create an enabling rights at the grassroots is paramount. environment because children are Policy level actions must be monitored supporting children, teachers are and followed up at localities. Focus on supporting teachers, and parents are the place of learning as an environment partners in the education of their children, promoting children’s rights means that it and at the same time communities are is safe and supportive of all learners, supporting their local schools. free from all forms of harassment, Furthermore, these schools care for the ridicule, bullying, discrimination, abuse students in a holistic way: bridge courses and physical violence – including for children lagging behind may be offered corporal punishment. Thus the CRC takes (such as NGO Pratham in India); the EFA agenda forward by finding ways scholarships15 for poorer students; and of enabling schools to serve all learners school feeding programmes (such as as part of a national education system WFP’s work in Afghanistan and India) that is inclusive and responsive (Heijnen- (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). The schools Maathuis, 2008). are able to see a child as a ‘whole’ person – with a life outside the school grounds. UNESCO is involved in an international initiative in schools called Living Values Education – www.livingvalues.net. Founded by a Hindu spiritual leader in the 1990s it is now operating in 66 countries in 4000 sites, many of which are schools. It has a rights-based approach to fostering positive self-development and social cooperation in children and young people. The programme provides activities, methodologies and materials for teachers and facilitators. Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 28 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA BEFORE SHE REACHES SCHOOL Before children reach school age they must negotiate threats from a number of diseases. More than 50 per cent of child deaths are caused by pneumonia, diarrhoea, malaria, measles, malnutrition and HIV. Health and nutrition can affect education in many ways. In resource-poor countries, physical and mental disability can be a major barrier to schooling … school readiness depends on cognitive, motor and socio- emotional development which can be affected by, among other things, under- nutrition, iron deficiency, anaemia and malaria. Source: Jukes (2006); cited in Ramachandran (2008). The ‘bi-directional relationship’ of a what are the aspects of health that are child’s health and education cannot be critical to girls, are crucial in ignored (see Annex 3). It is well known understanding why a girl may not attend that countries with low infant and child school. mortality tend to have high literacy (Bloom, 2005; Bhalla et al., 2003). Starting from early childhood, moving to Research over the last three decades has adolescence, and on to adulthood, shown that gender inequalities are health affects education in many ways. characteristic of communities with poor There is a sort of progression from the health, education and development immediate health situation of the child indicators. Illiterate women are trapped (level one) to socio-cultural factors (level in a vicious cycle of poverty, repeated four). Each subsequent level affects the childbearing and ill-health prior level. (Ramachandran, 2008). 1. Level one: The World Health Organization (WHO) i. Health and nutrition in early defines health as ‘a state of complete childhood affects school physical, mental and social well-being readiness; and not merely the absence of disease’. ii. Health and nutrition in early This definition creates an interrelated childhood affects enrolment, view of health and education. Questions attendance and learning. such as: in what ways do health and 2. Level two: well-being influence the ability of i. Child and family health/illness children to enrol, and complete at least (including tuberculosis, HIV and eight years of elementary education; and AIDS) affect educational participation and outcome. 29 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 3. Level three: overview of how health and education is i. School and community promoted across South Asia can be seen environment, including gender- in Annex 4 (Ramachandran, 2008). based violence, affects education outcomes, that adversely affect 5.2 Girl Friendly Schools: Infrastructure enrolment, attendance and learning. In order to retain girls in school, policies 4. Level four: beyond incentive schemes must be i. Socio-cultural perceptions, adopted. Essentially, learning attitudes and prejudices affect environments must be made more girl women’s and girls’ access to friendly. Making schools girl friendly services, thereby impacting both includes improving the physical school health and educational outcomes. infrastructure, teaching in ways that 5. Level five: discourage gender stereotypes, providing i. HIV/AIDS impacts girls’ education trained (female) teachers to act as role in many ways – from increasing models, and including the community in workload at home leading to the management of schools (Heijnen- withdrawal from school to Maathuis, 2008). discrimination and stigma. Water supply, sanitation and transport All five levels need to be seen in a facilities are important components of continuum. In many instances, the girl friendly infrastructure. On the ground, cumulative impact of early childhood this means that latrines are regularly health and nutrition is exacerbated cleaned, and designed and constructed during the later stages in life. An in a gender-sensitive manner. Therefore The MOE in the Maldives Maldives has embarked on a project supported by UNICEF to introduce child friendly classes in the primary schools. Starting in 2000, 22 under- served schools were targeted. However, subsequent to the Tsunami the project is targeting 105 schools in the country. Under the project teachers are trained to adopt a child-centred teaching methodology and the classrooms and schools are converted into a more conducive and child friendly environment to facilitate active learning. To address the issues of gender, separate toilets and washing facilities are built in all schools, while also providing safe drinking water. Each school has at least one staff member employed to keep toilets, classrooms and the school compound clean and hygienic, or the community employs a person to do so. Source: UNICEF (2004); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 30 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA it is important to involve students in the from their homes and dropping them off planning, implementation and each day at school to ensure their evaluation of school water supply and regular attendance, while also ensuring sanitation projects. It is not uncommon their security’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). for girls to skip school because there is a lack of adequate toilet facilities, or 5.3 Tackling Gender-based Violence because they are improperly managed (Aikman and Unterhalter, 2005). Many areas in South Asia, such as Afghanistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Pakistan During the last few years in thousands and India, have seen (and still remain in) of schools in Afghanistan, Bangladesh times of violent conflict and social and Pakistan water and sanitation unrest. The negative impact of violence, facilities have been installed or conflict and war on the education of girls upgraded. In Alwar, India, also the is highlighted by Aikman and Unterhalter introduction of School Sanitation and (2005) and WHO (2005). On a day-to- Hygiene Education (SSHE) projects has day basis women and girls can suffer resulted in a high increase of girls’ different forms of gender-based violence: attendance over a period of some years, at home, in school and in society at highlighting hygiene education as a large. Domestic violence is a worldwide critical aspect of a quality life-skills phenomenon and according to the WHO curriculum (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). it is a major public health issue. Gender- based violence includes all forms of ‘Distance can also be an obstacle for brutality that are ‘linked to gender roles girls to enrol and stay in school – traditionally assigned to sex – from using especially to continue education beyond language that undermines the self- primary school. Sometimes girls can esteem of girls to more horrific situations walk in groups or older women of rape and sexual harassment – accompany girls to school when outside perpetrated, in the case of schools, by the village, or stipends may cover teachers or other students (WHO, 2005)’ transportation costs. In Madya Pradesh (Ramachandran, 2008). (India) the Education Guarantee Scheme has started the practice of Early marriage and teenage pregnancy para-teachers or helpers collecting girls can be outward expressions of gender- In some countries students are targeted as change agents by involving them in promoting water, sanitation and hygiene activities in school through Child-to-Child cooperative teaching and learning, using the toolkit on ‘Hygiene, Sanitation & Water in Schools’. Source: www.schoolsanitation.org; cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 31 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA based violence. Indeed, in but a recent report brought out by the Bangladesh around 40 per cent of Government of India (see Annex 5) has girls are married by the age of 15. A for the first time highlighted the qualitative study done in poverty pervasive nature of violence in schools households of India reveals that the (GoI, 2006). However, it is likely that age of marriage is much lower among given the cultural and social taboos in the very poor (Ramachandran, the region in relation to discussing the 2004a). In addition, studies done in subject of sex, and associated stigmas India also reveal that unsafe abortion and feelings of shame linked to sexual is still an area of concern – abuse, these figures and others may be especially for girls who become under-represented. SRGBV can affect a pregnant before marriage (Visaria and girl’s ability to learn, and, if the school Ramachandran, 2007). The dynamics reinforce gender stereotypes, phenomenon of sex-selective abortion her self image may be obliterated, has compounded the crisis of early thereby negating the possible pregnancy and abortion (Patel, 2007). empowering effect of education. School-Related Gender-Based In addressing gender violence in Violence (SRGBV) can occur in schools, there is an urgent need for an school or on the way to school or after inclusive school approach involving school hours – by teachers or fellow management, teachers and students as students. Girls who live at a greater well as the curriculum to ensure that the distance from school are especially issues of gender-based violence are vulnerable. Unfortunately, there are tackled in a sensitive and appropriate few studies on SRGBV in South Asia, manner. ‘In different countries NGOs Let’s Talk Men alk Men – a film project in South Asia by Save the Children and UNICEF – aims at increasing understanding around masculinity and its relation with gender inequity and gender-based violence. Local filmmakers in India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan made four documentaries. They explore different aspects of male identity and provide a way to deconstruct patriarchy in their cultural context. The primary target audience for these films is adolescent boys and girls. Targeting boys is particularly important since so little media is addressed to them, even though it is men who are the main perpetrators of violence against girls. The films (and accompanying workbooks) have been used in schools in order to raise issues about gender-based harassment and violence against girls, and present alternative role models and ways of behaving for boys. Source: Save the Children (2003); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 32 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA have started to address the issue of Governments have made explicit school-based violence. The Centre for commitments to meet the goal of gender Mass Education and Science (CMES) equity in education (MDG 3); however, and BRAC, for example, organize there is little proof of implementation of workshops for adolescent girls (and boys) such national strategies. For example, throughout Bangladesh. While such topics about gender violence in the programmes are promising, they are only curriculum are few and far between able to reach a small part of the (Dunne et al., 2003). Students need to population and are difficult to scale up be able to investigate views of as they are developed outside the formal masculinity and femininity in order to education school setting’ (Heijnen- develop respectful gender relationships Maathuis, 2008). (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). 33 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 6 A PATHWAY TOWARDS QUALITY LEARNING 6.1 Teachers: The Vital Link Female teachers can act as positive role models as well as being key protagonists The number of teachers throughout the against SRGBV. Except for the Maldives region has grown, but the rate of growth and Sri Lanka, women are massively has lagged behind the rate of under-represented in the teaching enrolments, and therefore class sizes profession: there are fewer female head have remained incredibly large (for teachers, principals, administrators and example in rural government schools in policy makers. Whilst some countries Nepal it is not uncommon for there to be have established quotas for female 80 students in one class). In fact it is teachers, few have managed to fill them, estimated that in Bangladesh an because effective incentives and support additional 167,000 teachers are required mechanisms have not been (UNESCO, 2006). Critically, the gradual implemented. In Nepal for example, erosion of teacher terms and conditions more than 62 per cent of primary school (poor pay, few benefits, etc.) has resulted teachers in Kathmandu are women, in the decay of teacher motivation and while the average for the whole country morale, particularly at primary level is 29 per cent with only 19 per cent (Abadzi, 2006). female teachers in the Far West Region (Bista, 2006). This is due to a number of Throughout South Asia there is also a reasons, including concerns of lodging need for better quality teachers – away from home and issues of lower especially female teachers and teachers status and lower pay than their male recruited from minority populations. colleagues (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). 34 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA The acute shortage of female teachers in Afghanistan has been dealt with by accepting a community-selected woman with lower levels of education (usually grade 9) and providing teacher training supported by regular on-job monitoring and mentoring. While the weakness of this approach may be the quality of education, it has nevertheless reinstated female education disrupted by conflict or lack of qualified teachers, and, more remarkably, it has also facilitated first-time-ever female education in a number of rural communities. Emphasis is given to frequent and effective monitoring to support and maintain quality. Source: World Bank (2005); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Mobility support for female teachers in North West Frontier Province (NWFP) Pakistan is a simple intervention with a huge impact. It has been introduced by the NWFP Department of Education in 2003 and is supported by UNICEF, while teachers also contribute Rs. 200 per month … The provided transportation support has resulted in re-opening of schools, increased enrolment and retention of girls and an increased number of female applicants for teaching positions. See also: www.unicef.org/pakistan/reallives_2706.htm. Source: Angers, G. (2007); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). In Bhutan, teachers claim they cannot use participatory teaching–learning methods as these are too time-consuming and there is much pressure to finish the syllabus. More focus on Continuous Formative Assessment (CFA) and the New Approach to Primary Education (NAPE) tried to change this. Both approaches have helped teachers to become more responsive to different learning needs, while the overloaded curriculum and memory-based exam system are also being addressed. Source: Heijnen (2005); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 35 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA All countries in the region still rely on centre on how teachers can create traditional teacher-centred classrooms, learning environments where the whereby teachers drill learners to contribution of all students is encouraged memorize facts, simply to pass exams. and valued (including students with ‘Child-centred teaching is perceived as different learning styles and abilities).16 difficult and time consuming. Countries In essence an enabling environment is have now started to respond with various fundamental, whereby children learn to interventions, one of them training more appreciate diversity through the practices and better teachers – both in the of their teachers. subjects they teach and in teaching– learning methodology’ (Heijnen- Education does not thrive in an Maathuis, 2008). atmosphere in which children live in fear of those who teach them. Sadly, Sri Teachers are the foundations of Lanka is still the only country with laws education systems and poor learning banning corporal punishment in schools achievements are closely correlated to (however, enforcement and monitoring what and how teachers teach children remains a challenge). Students across (see Annex 6). Prejudice, corporal South Asia are often punished for punishment, and stereotyping of girls or wearing a torn or dirty uniform, or not children from minorities are acutely being able to answer a question. Such destructive to children’s learning. punishment is debasing and destructive Teacher training therefore needs to to a child’s self-esteem, fostering Reviews of curricula in the Maldives Maldives aim to make subjects more interesting and relevant and are designed to encourage teachers to change their style of teaching by encouraging them: to develop meta-cognitive skills and understanding; to be problem posers and guides rather than problem solvers; to present the material in everyday contexts; to encourage wider involvement of the parents and the wider community in the learning process; to enhance group work; and to encourage process-oriented teaching. The feedback from schools has been very positive. It claimed for example in social studies that students’ interest in the subject had increased and was generating lively classroom discussions. It also encouraged critical thinking and made students more active participants in class. Source: Mohamed and Ahmed (2000); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 36 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA A ‘Toolkit on Positive Discipline with particular emphasis on South and Central Asia’ has been developed by Save the Children (Regional Working Group). Modules include ‘Understanding child rights, concepts and child development’ and ‘Self-esteem, cultural context, positive behaviour management’. Clear tools and concrete activities help professionals, teachers, care-givers and parents to develop (self-)discipline in children without using physical or psychological punishment. See: http://sca.savethechildren.se/sca/Publications/Children-and-Violence/Physical-and- Humiliating-Punishment/; cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). feelings of failure and humiliation. The understanding of child-centred classroom message that children derive from such practices, (4) content and subject area teacher behaviour is that violence is strengthening and (5) preparation and acceptable in settling conflicts. use of teaching–learning materials Therefore it is essential that corporal (TLM). These are all teaching methods punishment is banned in all countries appropriate for developing the life skills and effective alternate methods are of children; children become more sought. engaged with the world around them through techniques such as group Training opportunities have increased for discussion, surveys, role plays and teachers in many parts of South Asia, feedback and reinforcement from their with often the main focus of these teachers (McKee et al., 2000). programmes being to: (1) use new methods such as role play, discussion, Good teachers understand that their work games and activities, assignments, case goes beyond the transmission of studies, etc., (2) raise the motivation curriculum and the assessment of level of teachers, (3) develop a better measurable achievement. They are The Primary School Development Programme (PSDP) in Sri Lanka was introduced to improve the quality of primary schooling by schools joining hands as a ‘school family’. Headmasters, teachers, parents and students of all schools get together to design and implement programmes that enhance efficiency and effectiveness … Professional development programmes for teachers include classroom observations as well as teacher and school development activities. School visits provide opportunities for peer support and exchange of experiences. Each teacher is expected to make two visits to a neighbouring school each year. Source: Jha (2004a); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 37 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA aware of the challenge of the broader existing pre-service education social contexts in which they teach and programme in the modules keep searching for more effective ways ‘Understanding the Learner’, ‘Child to reach all students. Effective teaching development and psychology’ and is often described by words such as ‘Teaching–learning processes’ (Heijnen- competent, dutiful, fair, responsive, Maathuis, 2008). flexible, reflective, expert, inclusive, welcoming and respectful – also by 6.2 Student Participation students (Heijnen, 2004). Teachers are also learners and therefore adequate Students who are not engaged in training and refresher courses are learning or who do not see the relevance important in maintaining motivation of what they are learning will often drop levels. In Bangladesh, professional out. Hence student participation quality of primary school teachers in the (involvement and interaction) in their field is enhanced through a 12-month learning is an important aspect of quality Certificate in Education course education. Within the learning conducted by Primary Training Institutes environment children must be able to (PTI); and in Bhutan UNESCO’s express their opinions, and in doing so ‘Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating feel comfortable about who they are and Inclusive Learning-Friendly what they believe in. Forums in which Environments’ is integrated into the children can express their views often Approaches to gender equality in the classroom focus on interaction and relationships between boys and girls and between teachers and students. They address: Gender stereotypes, i.e. challenging stereotypical views for example that girls are less able to succeed in science and mathematics. Sexual violence, abuse and harassment: raising awareness of the issues and using teachers to raise awareness of learners. Differential enrolment of boys and girls in school. Ideologies underlying the curriculum. Curriculum choices: e.g. encouraging girls to take technology subjects. Teaching styles, including differential attention paid to boys and girls. School organization and discipline: making schools more girl friendly and child friendly. Extra-curricular activities: e.g. providing sporting opportunities for girls as well as boys. Source: UNESCO (2003); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 38 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA develop their critical thinking and campaigning for a school and the problem solving life skills: essential for creation of student councils in Sri Lanka. any future job (see Annex 7). Giving children a say in matters that affect them improves standards, In addition, ‘it is important to ensure that behaviour and inclusion, while children – boys and girls – have a say in recognizing that social and emotional policies and practices that affect them. learning is as important as academic This means that adults need to listen to learning. Children need to build what students have to say. When given knowledge and understanding of issues opportunities, children have shown that like social justice, human rights and their voice can be a real force for sustainable development. As such, change. Examples can be found education should create the basis for a throughout the region, such as refugee democratic and just society’ (Heijnen- children in Pakistan successfully Maathuis, 2008). Students Partnership Worldwide (SPW) – an NGO in Nepal – is committed to children’s participation in decision making about their education. SPW facilitated consultation exercises by involving schoolchildren in discussions at village, district and regional levels on the issues of quality education and gender equality in education. On the basis of those discussions, selected student representatives brought recommendations to policy makers at a national level forum through different media including art, drama and dance. Source: UNICEF (2005c); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Intensive District Education for All (IDEAL) in Bangladesh has been an important component of PEDP. It especially focused on enhancing the effectiveness of primary education, by improving the quality of teaching, the school environment, the learning achievement of children and decentralizing schools. The main objectives of IDEAL were to establish and strengthen local level planning and management, improve classroom teaching and learning methods, reduce gender disparity, and promote active community participation. The project started in one district and was scaled up to other districts. An innovative teaching approach known as Multiple Ways of Teaching Learning (MWTL) based on the multiple intelligence theory of Howard Gardner was effectively adopted and applied to make teaching more child-centred, participatory and joyful. Lessons learned have revealed that IDEAL helped significantly to increase student learning achievement. In addition, School Management Committees also became more active in improving and supporting the schools. Source: Aikman and Unterhalter (2005); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 39 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 6.3 Curriculum, Language and negative consequences, such as Assessment increased chances of repetition and dropping out. This affects girls more than Considerable progress has been made in boys as their lives are often restricted to designing more gender-sensitive the home and family where only the curricula, such as in Bhutan. But local language is spoken’ (Heijnen- textbooks with stereotypical images of Maathuis, 2008). women and men are still prevalent in many countries, where women are often When children do not speak the portrayed solely as mothers and language of instruction they are more housewives. In addition, textbooks likely to drop out. Furthermore, research should not solely refer to urban or suggests that recognizing the importance international experiences that are likely of mother-tongue languages in a to be foreign to rural children, but rather bilingual or multilingual education offer a cross-section and range of system results in improved educational lifestyles and life experiences (Heijnen- attainments. Girls who learn in their Maathuis, 2008). home language stay in school longer, are more likely to be identified as good ‘In many countries the language of students, and repeat grades less often instruction17 in primary schools is a than their peers who do not get mother national or regional language, even tongue/home language instruction. When though large numbers of people have a learners can express what they know in a different mother tongue. A mismatch language in which they are adept, they between the language spoken at home develop higher self-esteem and greater and the language of school has several self-confidence (Benson, 2005). In textbooks used for Hindi language teaching in Madhya Pradesh, India India, there has been a conscious effort to present girls in positive roles. Famous women from history are included, for example women who fought for their state and women renowned for their educational achievements and service to society. Clear messages on girls’ education and the need for equal opportunities are included. Unfortunately, the tendency to cast the positive roles of women in the characters of the idealized and exceptionally heroic has not been very effective. In addition, gender stereotyping and inequalities persist in the narratives. Women appear largely in maternal roles, while the decision makers and protectors tend to be male. Source: Oxfam (2005); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 40 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Children from ethnic and language minorities in Bangladesh are disadvantaged by a mainstream education that does not recognize their language or culture. Their problems can be grouped into four main areas: 1. Poor access Poor access: discrimination by teachers for poor Bangla language skills; inflexible school calendar, not reflecting local conditions; lack of schools in Adivasi communities. 2. Poor quality: learning needs of Adivasi students unrecognized; insufficient teachers from Adivasi community; teacher deployment does not take account of ethnicity of teachers/learners; schools in Adivasi areas receive less government support. 3. Cultural inappropriateness: foreign language of instruction; local culture, values not recognized in curriculum; education system does not recognize strength of diversity. 4. Lack of local control: parents not involved as teachers do not speak community language; parents see less value in education not linked to culture and language. Source: Durnnian (2007); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Teaching and learning materials, barriers are reinforced. Such subjects evaluation and assessment procedures should be open to boys as they also need as well as language policy are all domestic skills, while on the other hand components of a curriculum: all have girls may need technical, mechanical gender dimensions, challenging or and mathematical skills’ (Heijnen- reinforcing equality. In some countries Maathuis, 2008). girls are denied access to certain subjects such as manual arts, technical Furthermore, curriculum development in subjects or higher mathematics because South Asia tends to be a male dominated textbooks are written with boys in mind. process. In Nepal and Afghanistan, for ‘Research shows, however, that girls are example, most textbook writers are as capable as boys in these subjects. males who may have little sensitivity Schools and teachers must thus shape towards gender issues in education. learning environments in which the right There is therefore a need to develop of children to learn is not linked to their links between curriculum developers and sex. Girls may need to learn about teachers for mutual feedback and so that cooking or vegetable gardens or curriculum developers can observe traditional dancing, yet if these are only classroom teaching (Heijnen-Maathuis, taught to girls, stereotypes and gender 2008). 41 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA India India has spent considerable time and budget on renewal of curricula and textbooks aiming at making it broad-based and the textbooks more relevant, interesting and child friendly. Three steps characterized the process of material development: (1) a participatory approach involving teachers, field staff and experts in developing textbooks; (2) textbook developers being exposed to a number of ‘good practices’ in other states and in NGO programmes; (3) field testing and systematic feedback leading to refinements, before large-scale introduction of new materials. As a result, the new textbooks for primary level are significantly different from the old ones. Source: Jha (2004a); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Education systems tend to measure how well students have learned is simply achievements by outcomes, based on too late (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). standardized tests and national exams. There are, however, limitations in relying ‘Policies are needed to promote too heavily on test scores: they do not alternate methods of “authentic” and tell us how meaningful the subject formative assessment, to look at how matter is to a child (see Annex 6). The schools support the learning process and type of assessment that dominates most progress of students, especially girls and schools in South Asia is assessment of socially marginalized learners, and to learning, i.e. it happens at the end of a help teachers focus on performance topic through tests or other graded work. indicators rather than just attainment Its results ‘count’ and appear on report measures. In Bhutan teachers are trained cards, but generally provide little more to use continuous formative assessment than a rank or a number. Assessment of (CFA) as a strategy to monitor and learning by itself is inadequate for support student learning by means of for understanding all learning achievements, example observation techniques, because it does not assess the process: learning logs, portfolio reviews and waiting till the end of a unit to find out feedback’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). Community schools and home-based schools in Afghanistan follow the assessment policies mandated by the Ministry of Education. Students are graded according to a breakdown of 80 per cent from their cumulative scores on year-end exams in seven subjects on which they must score at least a passing grade of 0 per cent, 10 per cent from homework, and 10 per cent from classroom participation. Students who fail one or two subjects are permitted to retake exams while those who fail three or more subjects must repeat the school year. Source: USAID (2006b); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 42 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 6.4 School–Community Partnership to timing, venue and curriculum, which can accommodate the domestic Community and parental participation in demands, safety concerns, and relevancy the education of children is vital in requirements of parents (Heijnen- creating a quality learning environment Maathuis, 2008). (UNICEF, 2004). The provision of nearby and safe schools, such as community or In many countries in South Asia home-based schools in Afghanistan and communities are engaged through Bhutan, give communities and parents a Village Education Committees (VECs) say in the running of these schools. They and School Management Committees are flexible learning spaces, in relation (SMCs), which involve parents and Community Organized Primary Education (COPE), developed by CARE, targets under- served regions with quality, community managed education opportunities in different countries in South Asia, for example in Nepal and Afghanistan. COPE schools are managed by Village Education Committees (VEC) and have higher survival rates and lower dropout rates than public schools. The government curriculum and formal examination schedule is used, while COPE teachers receive regular in-service training and in-school support. COPE’s considerable investment in TLM – textbooks, teacher guides and stationery – supports a learning environment conducive to optimal learning. Additionally, continuous assessment, high levels of student–teacher contact time, and the positive learning environment of these schools has contributed to consistently strong test results. Source: USAID (2006b); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). Community-based Education Management Information Systems (C-EMIS) are implemented in Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Nepal. Data is collected at community level instead of being school–based, and is analysed and used at the point of collection for school improvement through community–school partnership. These projects have been developed through Government–NGO partnership, supported by Save the Children, with the aim to increase education ownership at the local level. The objective is to make all (school-age) children visible and create an education system capable of analysing and addressing causes of exclusion at different levels, linking these to quality responses in an inclusive child friendly learning environment. C-EMIS data is meant to complement national EMIS data. The result is improved quality data and local and national level planning and decision making. Source: Heijnen (2003); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 43 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA communities in the governance of governmental organizations is certainly schools, as well as encouraging parents noteworthy. NGOs and community to provide a supportive home initiatives assist governments (on a environment. The roles of the committees variety of levels) as they work towards vary, but can include responsibilities also achieving the MDG goals. Non- related to school calendar planning, Formal (Primary) Education programmes quality monitoring, and school repair. need, however, to collaborate and integrate with government initiatives in 6.5 Alternative and Non-Formal Quality order to maximize benefits. NFE can Programmes provide for girls who have been pushed or pulled out of school early, who are child The state remains the primary provider of workers, or who have never enrolled, basic education, but the role of non- through providing ‘bridge courses’. BRAC schools in Bangladesh [and Pakistan] cover the full government primary curriculum, but use more interactive teaching–learning methods, resulting in lower dropout rates and better student performance compared with government primary schools. The same teacher works with the same students through the primary cycle and class size is kept small. BRAC schools measure their success by their ability to serve as a bridge to the government education system. Over 80 per cent of students join the formal system. Tuition and learning materials are free in BRAC schools, women teachers are recruited from the community and schools are supported and supervised regularly to maintain quality learning. Source: Herz and Sperling (2004); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). AMAL-YES (Youth Empowerment Skills) is an organization working throughout Pakistan with non-formal education (NFE) for street children aged between 7 and 17 – boys and girls. The drop-in centres are located in working areas. NFE is complemented with training in vocational skills, child rights, life skills, HIV/AIDS awareness and sensitization, basic health and hygiene, social and cultural activities and development of community organizations. Participatory methodology is used while focusing on the three basic subjects: (1) reading and writing in Urdu and English; (2) mathematics; and (3) life skills-based peer education. Master peer educators or ‘change agents’ are supported with technical and financial assistance. They impart both peer training and non-formal education, earning a small honorarium. In Balochistan the Non-Formal Basic Education (NFBE) department provides space for the centres as well as educational materials. AMAL-YES was declared a model by UNFPA in Pakistan. Source: UNESCO Bangkok (2004); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 44 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 7 RECOMMENDATIONS: STRATEGIES FOR AFFIRMATIVE ACTION Countries in South Asia are using the resources. If education is to reflect the Mid-Decade Assessment (MDA)18 to CRC, EFA and MDGs there are immense identify priorities and strategies towards challenges in quality implementation: achieving MDG goals 2 and 3 and the changes are necessary in instructional EFA goals. Strategies to address different and assessment practices. challenges include: improving sanitation facilities, training more female teachers, ‘Throughout South Asia primary and monitoring initiatives. Throughout education outcomes have been the region common priorities are to inadequate, and without a transition to identify and encourage learners that have further education countries may be left not yet been reached (such as disabled with outputs that are unsustainable. The children, child workers, and Dalits), by incentives used to help children enhancing educational quality and complete primary schooling should relevance. ideally be continued into the secondary level’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008).To The EFA MDA19 revealed strong respond to the need of increasing government commitment to continued secondary enrolment and retention, innovative approaches and school quality countries like Bangladesh and India are improvements. Yet there are still children implementing secondary-school stipend who do not have textbooks, sit in heavily and scholarship incentives, such as the overcrowded crumbling classrooms, Female Stipend Programme (FSP) in unable to access libraries, and whose Bangladesh. However, as with primary teachers have limited teaching school incentives, they may not cover all 45 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA education costs nor provide adequate for girls to leave school is acute with the support to girls. As girls become older, advent of puberty, which can give rise to location and accessibility of schools sexual harassment and parental pressure becomes very important and the pressure to marry. KEY RECOMMENDATIONS AND STRATEGIES Regional level 1. Conduct a gender review of textbooks and other teaching–learning materials to identify the challenges still to be addressed. Develop a common set of analytical tools, recommendations for revision and cooperation in the development of new materials, involving researchers, authors, curriculum specialists and policy makers. 2. Undertake a complementary study of incentive schemes such as stipends, scholarships, school feeding, etc., especially at the individual level of girls in terms of behaviour, (e)quality of opportunities and (e)quality of outcomes. Results should assist in implementing initiatives to reduce economic barriers. 3. Identify and develop teacher education cooperation networks between programmes and institutes with a special focus on developing child friendly or rights-based schools, sharing and benefiting from experience and expertise available within the region. 4. Initiate dialogue and initiatives based on the SAARC MTR on child rights. Assure that a regional base-line study on the child rights situation base-line study on the child rights situation and CRC implementation in South Asia for different children is established, using the CRC implementation handbook and checklists (UNICEF, 2002b). 5. Ensure an integrated approach to health and education: assess how all children’s health at school could be improved. 6. Increase expenditure in the education sector and reform non-education sector policies to tackle discrimination, e.g. in labour and financial markets such as employment policies. 7. Initiate inter-regional dialogue on gender mainstreaming: reassessment of how to reach gender parity (not just equality). 46 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA National level (policy) 1. Use the existing CRC Implementation Handbook and checklists to analyse the child rights situation in the country for improved educational planning, monitoring and evaluation. Develop policies and programmes that look more critically at quality and equality of education through the lens of rights-based and transformative change. Improve collaboration and cooperation between departments within education ministries and between government and non- government stakeholders in education, perhaps through joint monitoring initiatives. 2. Ensure the safety of school children – especially girls – by taking strong legal measures that outlaw gender-based violence and harassment in school and on the way to and from school, with clear procedures for dealing with violence. Adopt, implement and monitor prohibitions on the use of corporal punishment in school. 3. Review existing or develop new education policies, while raising issues of exclusion by asking what kind of diversity is acknowledged in education policies and practices (gender, ethnic, linguistic, religious minorities, disability, etc.). 4. Enhance accountability through improved data collection and analysis disaggregated by gender, income, region/district, urban/rural, public/private, formal/non-formal, social group and disabilities, so that inequities can be quantified and appropriate strategies devised to minimize imbalances. Make services for children accountable. 5. Acknowledge the rights of learners from linguistic minorities in education plans at different levels. Develop strategies that allow for mother tongue/bilingual education in policy and practice, strengthening students’ learning skills, while the national language is taught as second language at upper primary level. 6. Promote girl-friendly education by removing gender bias and discrimination from textbooks, teaching methods and classroom interactions at all levels of education and by training teachers, principals, DEOs, and supervisors to be sensitive to gender and child rights and integrate wider life skills. Ensure wider consultation (both men and women) in curriculum/textbook review and development. 7. Develop condensed, accelerated programmes to facilitate re-entry into school of girls who have dropped out; provide transport, accommodation and extra tuition/ remedial help where needed; develop in-school or after-school compensatory programmes that engage and retain excluded children, particularly girls, and boost their learning achievement. 47 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 8. Improve remuneration and career opportunities to raise teacher status. Provide performance incentives (e.g. official recognition; awards) and better conditions of service, making teaching an attractive profession, and provide pre-service and in- service teacher training: especially in participatory methodology that is gender and diversity sensitive and engages boys and girls. Develop ‘reflective practice’ in teachers. 9. Appoint at least one female teacher per primary school, and in the case of remote schools teams of two. Provide residential facilities, transport and other additional incentives to attract qualified female teachers to schools – rural and remote schools in particular. 10. Construct (more) girl friendly primary and secondary schools within a reasonable distance of communities to prevent extensive travel or boarding and thus reducing concerns about cost and safety. These schools must have separate latrines for boys/girls and male/female teachers, and also pay attention to personal hygiene issues of girls and female teachers. 11. Launch publicity campaigns using mass media and audio-visual aids to create a favourable environment for girls’ education and positive images of women, while also engaging boys and men as advocates for gender-sensitive societal developments. In Pakistan, for example, boy scouts successfully advocated for girls’ access to basic education. The Meena initiative in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan and Nepal (UNICEF), a multimedia approach to raise the profile of girls while highlighting issues around child marriage, dowry system, gender-based violence and education for girls, has been very successful. School level (programme) 1. Integrate gender into all school policies and practices and increase knowledge on gender issues and gender-based violence among teachers and in the school curriculum. Conduct school-based research of safety and security of students, including students and their perspectives. Research on the systematic barriers for different children – including on language barriers; on the classroom experience of girls; on the impact of female teachers; on different attitudes and expectations of male and female teachers regarding girls’ abilities, etc. – should also be conducted in order to establish the real lived experiences of girls. 2. Conduct tracer studies to analyse empowering and transformative effects of girls’ education – both of mainstream schooling experiences and alternative or NFE programmes. This data should be disaggregated in terms of gender and minority groups. 48 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 3. Document and monitor development of ‘model’ rights-based schools (child friendly schools/inclusive child-friendly learning environments). Share examples of good practice. Monitor child friendly school effects on quality of learning environments, teaching–learning processes and learning outcomes. 4. Ensure families and communities are involved in their children’s education: parents’ days, curriculum interactions, school programmes, etc. Also promote community-based structures that can assist in monitoring school activities (including girls and women from minority groups), and assess community contributions towards children’s education through micro-credit schemes. The whole range of educational issues – distributing incentives or initiating starting from the cost of education, to innovative programmes in a sporadic physical access and transportation, manner at specific locations will not sexual harassment, overcrowded have a long-term, sustainable impact classrooms, teacher shortages and on the system (Ramachandran, 2008). attitudes of the teaching community – As Tables 7 and 8 illustrate, there is no all work together to create a web of one reason why girls do not attend educational barriers. Therefore, schools – rather there is a plethora of addressing a couple of problems, obstacles. Table 7 What Influences Girls' Education? Systemic issues Content and process of Economy, society and education culture Physical access Gender stereotyping in Poverty/powerlessness Functioning schools school Status of women Quality of schools Perpetuation of gender Direct and indirect costs Motivation of teachers bias in books Child labour / domestic Attitudes and prejudices Relevance of curriculum work of teachers Language Self-esteem and self- Different kinds of schools, Joyful learning perception differentially endowed Ready access to books, Health and nutrition facilities magazines, papers and Post-puberty practices Calendar and timings so on Child marriage Corporal punishment Source: Ramachandran (2008) 49 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Table 8 What Influences the Health and Nutrition of Girls? The health system Approaches, priorities, Economy, society and mindset and attitudes culture Physical access No specific girls' health Poverty/powerlessness Availability of healthcare programme - focus on Status of women facilities and providers women in reproductive Poor nutrition Location and timing of age groups Burden of work from services Resistance to providing early age Quality of care and sex education to girls Post-puberty practices clinical skills of providers Attitude of healthcare Child marriage Single or multiple window providers Domestic violence for interrelated services Absence of a rights Seclusion and purdah/ Reliable referral services perspective in health veiling services HIV/AIDS and STI Source: Ramachandran (2008) A long-term improvement in the other civil society organizations participation of girls hinges on their proactively intervene to remove structural health, quality of education, and on the barriers to girls’ education. Gender-based ability to effectively address other forms violence must be tackled to include of discrimination that girls and children prevention of early marriage, eradication from minorities face. Fundamentally, of girl trafficking, and by ensuring that governments must commit political will schools are not reinforcing gender alongside administrative and monitoring stereotypes nor turning a blind eye to initiatives. Progression from gender sexual violence and abuse. Life skills, parity to gender equality cannot be knowledge about sexual and reproductive achieved with increased supply (of health issues, human rights and child schools, health centres, hospitals) alone. rights within curricula must be The movement towards gender equality implemented. is only possible when governments and 50 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA gender Conduct a review of textbooks and other teaching– learning materials to identify the challenges still to be addressed. Promote girl-friendly education by removing gender bias and discrimination from textbooks, teaching methods and classroom interactions at all levels of education and by training teachers, principals, DEOs and supervisors. I mprove remuneration and career eacher and textbook T improvements • • • TION such . what joint study n parity i gender that engage n o inter-regional diversity is compensatory ndertake a evelop in-school or after- U complementary of incentive schemes as stipends, scholarships, school feeding, etc. Initiate dialogue mainstreaming – link to wider economic policies: reassessment of how to reach gender Review existing or develop new education policies, while raising issues of exclusion by asking kind of acknowledged education policies and practices. D school programmes and retain excluded children, particularly girls, and boost their learning achievement. Schemes (to reduce barriers to education) • • • • f o girl s health at safety en’ could be childr nsure the Undertake a joint study to assess how all school improved. E school children – especially girls – by taking strong legal measures that outlaw gender-based violence and harassment in school. Construct (more) friendly primary and secondary schools within a reasonable distance of communities to prevent extensive Health • • • . , POLICY FRAMEWORK FOR ACHIEVING QUALITY HOLISTIC EDUCA CRC and analysis base-line study on improved data n t i o c l l e o Initiate dialogue and initiatives based on the SAARC MTR on child rights. Assure that a regional the child rights situation and CRC implementation in South Asia for different children is established. Increase percentage of GNP expenditure on educational reform, and improve utilization mechanisms. Use the existing Implementation Handbook and checklists to analyse the child rights situation in the country for improved educational planning, monitoring and evaluation Enhance accountability through collection c disaggregated by gender income, region/district, urban/rural, public/private, formal/non-formal, social group and disabilities. Child rights (tackling vulnerability) • • • • Regional National 51 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA raise Provide . , and in teacher : especially in at least one g i n i n rovide pre-service and opportunities to teacher status performance incentives (e.g. official recognition; awards) and better conditions of service. P in-service training t r a participatory methodology that is gender and diversity sensitive and engages boys and girls. Develop ‘reflective practice’ in teachers. Appoint female teacher per primary school the case of remote schools teams of two. Provide residential facilities, transport and other additional incentives. eacher and textbook T improvements • • using mass publicity aunch L campaigns media and audio-visual aids to create a favourable environment for girls’ education and positive images of women, while also engaging boys and men as advocates for gender- sensitive societal developments. Schemes (to reduce barriers to education) • . These travel or boarding and thus reducing concerns about cost and safety schools must have separate latrines for boys/girls and male/ female teachers. Health t ween linguistic education e n i cknowledge the rights of Child rights (tackling vulnerability) A learners from minorities plans at different levels. Improve collaboration and cooperation cooperation b departments within education ministries and between government and non-government stakeholders in education, perhaps through joint monitoring initiatives. • • National 52 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA teachers and Ensure textbook writers have a forum to communicate on ideas for improvement: make sure the writers experience their own lessons. eacher and textbook T improvements • to both of – s s en’ parents days, families and Conduct tracer studies analyse empowering and transformative effects of girls’ education mainstream schooling experiences and alternative or NFE programmes. This data should be disaggregated in terms of gender and minority groups. Ensure communities are involved in their childr education: curriculum interactions, school programmes, etc. Also promote community based structures that can assist in monitoring school activities (including girls and women from minority groups), and assess community contributions towards children’ education through micro- credit schemes. Schemes (to reduce barriers to education) • • increase f safety and school-based o and gender- Integrate gender into all school policies and practices and knowledge on gender issues based violence among teachers and in the school curriculum. Conduct research security of students, including the participation of students – their perspectives are needed. Health • • ocument and monitor Child rights (tackling vulnerability) D development of ‘model’ rights-based schools (child friendly schools/ inclusive child-friendly learning environments). Share examples of good practice. Monitor child friendly school effects on quality of learning environments, teaching- learning processes and learning outcomes. • Local (school-based) 53 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 8 CONCLUSION: THE TIME IS NOW ‘The [child rights] model emphasizes the ground realities of South Asia. It is school as a place providing learning important here to understand the opportunities relevant to life and interplay of poverty, social inequalities, livelihood, in a healthy, safe and caring cultural practices/norms, religious, caste environment that is inclusive and and gender relations on the one hand protective, gender sensitive and involves and the institutional structures for the participation of children, families education on the other’ (Ramachandran, and communities.’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). 2008) Education must be relevant to children’s This paper has provided an overview of lives, resulting in learners being able to the existing challenges to girls’ use life skills learnt at school in real life education in the region, and at the same situations. In child friendly schools this time it has given an overview of also includes knowledge about human successful initiatives, which have rights, gender equality, health and primarily been those that are multi- nutrition, HIV/AIDS prevention and peace dimensional. Class, caste, ethnicity and building. This holistic subject matter disability are all factors that exert an must be incorporated into curricula, and influence on what kind of school a girl depending on how it is delivered, it will will attend, and up to what level she will ultimately decide whether the education pursue her education. Unfortunately, experience for a child will be ‘existing data sets/indicators used in the empowering and transformative or not. region do not capture the complex Teachers must model and practise these 54 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA values. In the long term this will impact development of rights-based schools. upon whether or not a country has a This can be seen as an integral part of competent workforce in the future (not Education for All (EFA), creating forgetting that there are already an opportunities to improve the quality of estimated 400 million young people education for all children while aged 12–24 in South Asia) addressing their equal rights to, in and (Ramachandran, 2008). through education … The emphasis is on what students get out of the process ‘Child friendly or rights-based schools as rather than on what teachers are putting a concept of quality education linked to into it. It requires an approach to the implementation of the CRC is still teaching that facilitates learning and relatively new in South Asia. All where students do most of the work, countries in the region are, however, rather than the teachers (Heijnen, 2006)’ developing model schools and some (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). have started to integrate the concept in pre-service teacher education ‘The right to participation (CRC Art. 12) programmes. Process and progress recognizes that children are agents of monitoring will be important to assess change, rather than passive recipients of whether the model schools in the services. Their capacity to fulfil this role, different countries meet the specific in keeping with their own growing objectives and reflect a quality learning maturity, depends on opportunities environment. A recent evaluation of provided by schools. Education is one existing programmes in the region important context in which the capacity revealed that the child friendly school for self-expression and other skills and concept is implemented in a rather behaviours required for “participation” fragmented manner, focusing on some are learned, which also includes a but not all its dimensions. As a rights- process of questioning assumptions, based concept, a child friendly school reflecting on one’s own experience, and cannot be child friendly without also taking responsibility for one’s own being inclusive, effective, gender learning. At a more practical level sensitive, healthy and protective and participation in school systems may involved with parents and communities imply that children are involved in (Keane, 2006)’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, classroom management procedures, are 2008). represented in school boards or are involved in discussions related to ‘Regional sharing of experience and changes in facilities or extra-curricular expertise, peer reviews, joining hands in activities (Hammarberg, 1997)’ teacher training incorporating CRC/CFS, (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). documentation of best practice and regional networking are some ideas to Participation is the foundation for further boost and scale up the democratic citizenship. Children and 55 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA For many years Save the Children and the Commission of Afghani Refugees (CAR) have been helping Afghani girls and boys in refugee camps in Pakistan (NWFP) to form Child- to-Child groups. Through these groups children have learned about their rights, health, disability, social and community issues. They have begun to see themselves as protectors of their rights. Children have identified problems affecting them and their community and have moved to address them. Children have become monitors of child rights in their schools and communities, promoting the right to education by visiting families whose children were not going to school. ‘Before this group was started there was no education for girls, now there is a girl’s school. We used not to eat together with the girls and now we do. Girls were not allowed to play sports, but now this has changed. We have motivated street children to go to school. We have spread messages to drug addicts. Children with special needs are coming to school. We have learned about the risks of mines.’ (Child-to-Child group, Islami Khidmatgar, Ghandi Khan Khel Camp) Source: O’Kane (2006); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). young people learn most about improving quality as one of its highest citizenship by being active engaged national priorities, focusing on the whole citizens (Heijnen-Maathuis, 2008). learning environment: including the Rights-based schools offer students the infrastructure of schools; availability of opportunities to take on responsibilities textbooks and teaching materials; and and exercise choices. A step towards this more community involvement. Existing can be seen in the formal education quantitative goals must be sector, where NGOs in Pakistan, Nepal, complemented with qualitative targets. Sri Lanka and Bangladesh have Certain targets should improve, support supported children to play an active role and monitor the quality of teaching and in Community-based Education learning, especially in disadvantaged Management Information Systems (C- communities and schools. Teacher EMIS), by demonstrating their skills of training and their ongoing professional information collection, analysis and support in relation to issues of status and critical thinking (Heijnen-Maathuis, motivation, remuneration and career 2008). options require urgent attention. South Asia has improved the enrolment Each country ‘in the region must now of girls over the last few years, but issues make secondary education an equal of retention and quality remain. Every priority. Achieving quality, gender country in South Asia has identified equitable secondary education is what 56 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Table 9 Rates of Return to Additional Years of Education (Males and Females) at Various Levels of Education Level of education Rate of return (%) Males Females Primary 2.7 6.8 Middle 4.5 20.5 Matriculation 13.2 27.4 Intermediate 11.14 16.9 Bachelors 15.4 22.6 Master's or higher 15.1 30.7 Source: Aslam (2007); cited in Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) will ultimately lead to greater socio- Essentially, overall men still earn more economic returns, enabling young than women, thus making returns on male women (and men) to contribute to their schooling higher. Hence there is a need communities beyond their own families for action at the level of wider economic and ultimately to the development of policies in tandem with education policy their countries’ (Heijnen-Maathuis, (Mujahid-Mukhtar, 2008). 2008) (see Table 9). The issue of gender equality is not Policy thus has to focus on reducing the limited to a single goal – it is cross- costs of and changing the structures of cutting and it applies to all. Without delivering school services on the one progress towards gender equality and the hand, as well as interventions to change empowerment of girls and women, none parental attitudes and household of the MDGs will be achieved (Mujahid- behaviour on the other (see Annex 8 for Mukhtar, 2008). suggestions for policy changes that may improve instructional outcomes). The time for affirmative action is now. 57 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA BIBLIOGRAPHY Abadzi, H. (2006). Efficient learning for the poor – Insights from the frontier of cognitive neuroscience. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. Ahmed, M. and Chowdhury, R. (2005). Beyond Access: Partnership for Quality with Equity. Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB. Aikman, S. and Unterhalter, E. (2005). 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Understanding Links between Children’s Health and Education. Working Paper. Los Angeles, USA: University of California. Jandhyala, K. (2003). Empowering Education: Mahila Samakhya Experience. Background paper prepared for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2004. Jayaweera, S. (1997). Women, Education and Empowerment in Asia. Gender and Education, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp.411–23. Jeejibhoy, S. and Sathar, Z. A. (2001). Women’s Autonomy in India and Pakistan: The Influence of Religion and Region. Population and Development Review, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp. 687–712. Jessop, T. (2000). A model of best practice at Loreto Day school, Sealdah, Calcutta. Jha, J. (2004a). EFA in South Asia – Analytical Study on Dakar Goals (Series). Goal 2: Universal Primary Education. UNESCO Delhi. Jha, J. (2004b). EFA in South Asia – Analytical Study on Dakar Goals (Series). Goal 5: Gender. UNESCO Delhi. Jha, J. and Jhingran, D. (2005). 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The equity in the classroom project. Bangladesh workshop materials. Mathieu, A. (2006). Reaching the Girls in South Asia: Differentiated Needs and Responses in Emergencies. Issues Paper. Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI. McKee, N. et al. (2000). Involving People, Evolving Behaviour. UNICEF. Mohamed, A.M. and Ahmed, M.A. (2000). Maldives: Education policies, curriculum design and implementation at the level of upper primary and general secondary education. Mujahid-Mukhtar, E. (2008). Poverty and Economic Vulnerability in South Asia: Does It Impact Girls’ Education? Issues Paper. Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI. O’Kane C. (2006). Children and Young People as Citizens: Partners for Social Change. 3rd ed. Save the Children. Oxfam (2005). Gender equality in schools. Patel, T. (Ed.) (2007). Sex-selective Abortion in India: Gender, Society and New Reproductive Technologies. New Delhi: Sage Publications. Pigozzi, M.J. (2001). Girls’ Education: Improving both Access and Quality. UNICEF. Pratham India (2005). Annual Survey of Education Report (ASER) 2005. New Delhi. PROBE Report 1999. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. Ramachandran, V. (Ed.) (1998). Bridging the Gap between Intention and Action – Girls’ and Women’s Education in South Asia. Bangkok and New Delhi: UNESCO- PROAP and ASPBAE. Ramachandran, V. (Ed.) (2004a). Snakes and Ladders: Factors Influencing Successful Primary School Completion for Children in Poverty Contexts. South Asian Human Development Sector Report No. 6. New Delhi: World Bank. Ramachandran, V. (2004b). Gender and Social Equity in Primary Education – Hierarchies of Access. 62 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Ramachandran, V. (Forthcoming 2008). Health and Girls’ Education in South Asia: An Essential Synergy (Provisional title). Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI. Rao Gupta, G. (2001). Gender, Sexuality and HIV/AIDS: The What, the WHY and the How. SIECUS Report 29 (5). http://www.siecus.org/pub/srpt/srpt0033. Rashid, M. (March 17, 2005). Can Women Get Rid of Poverty? New Age (Newspaper), Dhaka. Raynor, J. and Wesson, K. (2006). The Girls’ Stipend Program in Bangladesh. Journal of Education for International Development. Save the Children (2001a). Ending Corporal Punishment of Children – Making it happen. Save the Children (2001b). What makes a good teacher? – Perspectives of children, parents and teachers. Save the Children (2003). Rights of Passage. Save the Children (2005). The Power and Promise of Girls’ Education. Save the Children Sweden / Regional Office for South Asia (2006a). Voices of girls and boys to end Violence against Children in South and Central Asia. Save the Children / Regional Office for South and Central Asia (2006b). Demystifying Non-discrimination for Effective Child Rights Programming in South and Central Asia. Discussion Paper. Save the Children / Regional Office for South and Central Asia (2007). A toolkit on positive discipline – with particular emphasis on South and Central Asia. Seel, A. (2006). Addressing Social and Gender Disparity in South Asia Through SWAps and PBAs in Education: How Can We Use World Experience? Issues Paper. Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI. Sen, A. (2006). Identity and Violence: The Illusion of Destiny. London: Penguin Books. Shultz, P.T. (1993). Returns to Women’s Schooling. In King, E. and Hill, M.A. (Eds), Women’s Education in Developing Countries: Barriers, Benefits and Policy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Stromquist, N. (1995). Romancing the state: gender and power in education. Comparative Education Review, 39 (4), pp.423–54. Subrahmanian, R. (2006). Mainstreaming Gender for Better Girls’ Education: Policy and Institutional Issues. Issues Paper. Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI. Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation (SDC) (2006). Gender, Conflict Transformation & the Psychosocial Approach. Bern: DEZA. 63 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA UNDP (2004). National Human Development Report (Afghanistan). UNDP (2006). Human Development Report 2006. UNESCO (2003). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2003/4 – Gender and Education For All: The Leap to Equality. UNESCO (2004a). Quality education / Education for Sustainable Development. http:// portal.unesco.org/education. UNESCO (2004b). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005 – The Quality Imperative. UNESCO (2005). A Comprehensive Strategy for Textbooks and Learning Materials. UNESCO (2006). EFA Global Monitoring Report 2006 – Literacy for Life. UNESCO Bangkok (2002). Guidelines for Preparing Gender Responsive EFA Plans. UNESCO Bangkok (2004). A Regional Study of Policies and Programmes Addressing the Right of Street Children to Education. UNESCO Bangkok (2005a). Exploring and Understanding Gender in Education. UNESCO Bangkok (2005b). Providing Education to Girls from Remote and Rural Areas. UNESCO Bangkok (2005c). Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive Learning-Friendly Environments. 2nd ed. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/ 001375/137522e.pdf. UNESCO Bangkok (2006a). Education in Emergencies: The Gender Implications. Advocacy Brief. UNESCO Bangkok (2006b). The Impact of Women Teachers on Girls’ Education. Advocacy Brief. UNESCO Bangkok (2007a). Mid Decade Assessment. South Asia meeting materials, downloaded from www.unescobkk.org/efamda (April 2007). UNESCO Bangkok (2007b). Advocacy kit for promoting multilingual education: Including the excluded. UNESCO Kathmandu (2005a). Winning People’s Will for Girl Child Education: Community Mobilization for Gender Equality in Basic Education – A Case Study. UNESCO Kathmandu (2005b). Gender responsive non-formal education in Nepal: A case study. UNESCO/UNGEI (2005). ‘Scaling up’ good practices in girls’ education. UNICEF (2002a). Quality Education for All – From a Girl’s Point of View. UNICEF (2002b). Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the Child. 64 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA UNICEF (2004). State of the SAARC Child 2005. UNICEF (2005a). Progress For Children – A Report Card on Gender Parity and Primary Education UNICEF (2005b). Gender Achievements and Prospects in Education – The GAP Report, Part One UNICEF (2005c). 2005 and Beyond: Accelerating Girls’ Education in South Asia, 7–9 February 2005, Bangkok, Thailand. Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA. UNICEF (2006). The Millennium Development Goals – Progress and Challenges in South Asia 2006. UNICEF (2007). The State of the World’s Children 2007 – South Asia Edition. USAID (2006a). Meeting EFA: Afghanistan Community Schools. USAID (2006b). Meeting EFA: Afghanistan Home-Based Schools. Unterhalter, E. (2006). Measuring Gender Inequality in Education in South Asia. Issues Paper. Kathmandu: UNICEF ROSA/UNGEI. Visaria, L. (2002). Education and Health in South Asia: What Do We Know? Asia Pacific Population Journal, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp.83–96. Visaria, L. and Ramachandran, V. (Eds) (2007). Abortion in India: Ground Realities. New Delhi: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. Wellesley Centre for Research on Women (2005). Unsafe Schools: A Literature Review of School-related Gender-based Violence in Developing Countries. USAID. Wijngaarden, J. and Shaeffer, S. (2005). HIV/AIDS in Asia: Human Rights and the Education Sector. HIV/AIDS Discussion Paper No. 2. Paris: UNESCO. World Bank (2002). Education and HIV/AIDS: A Window of Hope. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank (2005). Afghanistan: National Reconstruction and Poverty Reduction – the Role of Women in Afghanistan’s Future. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank (2007a). World Development Report 2007: Development and the Next Generation. Washington, D.C.: World Bank. World Bank (2007b). HIV/AIDS in South Asia (country reports). http:// go.worldbank.org/NWLDBZF2G0. Working for Better Life (WBL) – Bangladesh. www.workingforbetterlife.org. World Health Organization (2005). WHO Multi-country Study on Women’s Health and Domestic Violence against Women: Initial Results on Prevalence, Health Outcomes and Women’s Response. Geneva: WHO. 65 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Useful websites and tools20 www.unescobkk.org/gender. Gender in Education, including a Toolkit for Promoting Gender Equality in Education with, for example, a gender and education classroom observation tool; a tool for gender assessment of textbooks; a gender lens to create curriculum and textbooks free of gender bias; a gender lens measuring the child- friendliness of schools; and guidelines for implementing, monitoring and evaluating gender responsive EFA plans. www.ungei.org. United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative; including news lines and info by country and downloadable resources (issue papers; case studies; meeting reports; briefing papers, etc.). www.unicef.org/girlseducation. Basic education and gender equality; resources; news line. www.unicef.org/teachers. About teachers (including handbooks), learners (including student activities), learning environment and girls’ education (archived 1999–2004). www.id21.org. Communicating Development Research (Institute of Development Studies/University of Sussex; supported by DFID); free subscription to id21 Insights Education. www.campaignforeducation.org. Advocacy for Education Change; promotes education as a basic human right; mobilizes public pressure on governments and the international community to provide free, compulsory quality education to all. www.womenscommission.org/pdf/EdGenderTool.pdf. Tool to ensure a gender perspective in education in emergencies. www.unescobkk.org/fileadmin/user_upload/appeal/IE/Publications_and_reports/ Pos_Dis-final.pdf. Positive Discipline in Inclusive Learning-Friendly Classrooms – A Guide for Teachers and Teacher Educators. www.violencestudy.org. UN Secretary-General’s Study on Violence against Children report, and progress report (in development). www.unicef.org/teachers/compendium/index.html. Compendium on quality in basic education. www.sil.org/sil. Linguistic research and development; especially focusing on unwritten languages. SIL has a formal consultative status to UNESCO. www.unescobkk.org/IE. About inclusive education, implying responding to ALL children who are left out of or excluded from school and from learning; also downloadable: ‘Embracing Diversity: Toolkit for Creating Inclusive Learning-Friendly Environments’. www.eenet.org.uk. Enabling Education Network website with links to regional networks and the EENET Asia Newsletter (downloadable). The 4th issue contains a School-Based Assessment format/tool to assess the child-friendliness of a school. 66 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA www.livingvalues.net. A rights-based approach to fostering positive self-development and social cooperation in children and young people. The website provides activities, methodologies and materials for teachers and facilitators. www.who.int/school_youth_health/resources/information_series/en/. Documents and tools related to: Creating an environment for emotional and social well-being: an important responsibility of a health-promoting and child-friendly school. Violence prevention: an important element of a health-promoting school. The physical school environment: an essential component of a health-promoting school. Family life, reproductive health and population education: key elements of a health-promoting school. Improving health through schools: national and international strategies. KEY PRACTICAL TOOLS ‘Gender in education’: www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=40 ‘Gender in the classroom’: www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4582 where also the following tools are available: 1. Guidelines for how to conduct classroom observation from a gender perspective 2. Gender lens for measuring the child-friendliness of school. ‘Toolkit for Creating Inclusive Learning Friendly Environments’: www.unescobkk.org/ie. Click on ‘resources’ and find the 6 booklets of the toolkit. ‘Positive Discipline in the Inclusive Learning-Friendly Classroom – A guide for teachers and teacher educators’: www.unescobkk.org/ie. To address school-based violence and school health issues the following resources may be useful: 1. Creating an Environment for emotional and social well-being: an important responsibility of a health-promoting and child-friendly school (including the Psycho-Social Environment (PSE) profile questionnaire as a useful school environment assessment tool). 2. The Physical School Environment – An Essential Component of a Health- Promoting School. To be downloaded from: www.who.int/school_youth_health/resources/information_series/en/. Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 67 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA NOTES 1. The eight SAARC countries are Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Maldives, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. 2. www.unescobkk.org/efamda. Government officials’ meeting in New Delhi for EFA MDA South Asia workshop in December 2006. 3. Net enrolment figures only provide information on the number of children on the school register – not of their attendance, passing of grades or effective learning. Studies have revealed that at least half the children finishing primary education in South Asia cannot effectively read, write or do simple mathematics (Herz, 2006). 4. See also Mathieu (2006). 5. In Bangladesh, it was found that the average salary of a secondary-school educated woman is as much as seven times higher than that of a woman with no education (Haq and Haq, 1998). 6. http://www.netaid.org/global_poverty/girls-education. 7. See also Heijnen (2003). 8. See Chitrakar (2008) for a deeper analysis. 9. There is an assumption here that it is the parents who do this. In fact, the children themselves, older siblings or other relatives or friends could be financing children’s education. In many Asian countries, daughters’ earnings are known to be used for paying for sons’ education, as shown in Greenhalgh’s (1985) work on Taiwan. 10. In McKee et al. (2000). 11. Although the Maldives are a notable exception, where according to the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2007, between 2002– 04 public expenditure on education as a percentage of GNP was 8%. 12. A discussion and study into which services should be initiated in order to ensure that governments would not be further disadvantaging the poor. 13. Calculated on the basis of: (i) probability at birth of not surviving up to 40 years of age; (ii) adult illiteracy rate; and (iii) population without sustainable access to improved water source. 14. Refer to Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) for a more detailed analysis of South Asian trends. 15. However, there can be misuse of scholarship funds, and lack of transparency and monitoring (see Ahmed and Chowdhury, 2005). 16. A resource for gender training and analysis in education can be found on the UNESCO Bangkok website: www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=4634: A Toolkit for Promoting Gender Equality in Education by the Gender in Education Network in Asia (GENIA). 17. Based on Benson (2005). 18. www.unescobkk.org/efamda. Government officials’ meeting in New Delhi for EFA MDA South Asia workshop in December 2006. 19. www.unescobkk.org/efamda. Government officials’ meeting in New Delhi for EFA MDA South Asia workshop in December 2006. 20. Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 68 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 1 Key Legislation Promoting Girls’ Education CRC and education Art. 28 All children have a right to education. The state is obliged to provide formal schooling, ‘progressively, and on the basis of equal opportunity’. Primary education should be free and compulsory. Styles of school discipline should reflect the child’s human dignity. Art. 29 t. 29 The purpose of education is to develop children’s personality and talents, to prepare them for active adult life, to foster respect for basic human rights and a respect for the child’s own culture and those of others, and life in a free, peaceful and tolerant society. Art. 2 All rights laid down in the CRC shall be respected and ensured to all children without discrimination of any kind on grounds of race, gender, economic status, religion, citizenship, social class, ethnicity, language, etc. and measures will be taken to protect children against all forms of discrimination. Art. 12 Art. 12 Children have a right to express opinions and their views shall be sought and considered on all matters that affect their lives, individually and collectively. Art. 3 Art. 3 In all actions concerning children, the best interest of the child must be a primary consideration. Art. 6 The right to life, survival and optimal development. 69 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Education For All (EFA) EFA Goal 2 A Goal 2 Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in difficult circumstances and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and complete, free and compulsory education of good quality. EFA Goal 5 Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieving gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality. EFA Goal 6 A Goal 6 Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all, especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills. Millennium Development Goals (MDG) MDG 2 MDG 2 Achieve Universal Primary Education – ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of primary education. MDG 3 Promote gender equality and empower women – eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and at all levels by 2015. Source: Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 70 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 2 Education and Women’s Productivity and Income Relationship Between Female Adult Literacy and Female Income 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 Female Income ($ PPP) 0 20 40 60 80 100 -5000 Female Adult Literacy (%) Source: Country data derived from UNDP (2006); cited in Mujahid-Mukhtar (2008) • South Asian countries 71 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 3 How Health Affects Girls’ Education Health issues Impact on education Under-nutrition Impairs mental development / cognitive development (protein energy and On recovery, children remain impaired malnutrition) Motor development affected Poor emotional development Frequent bouts of illness make it worse Iron deficiency and In infants, it affects psychomotor development anaemia Older children – weak, listless, get tired, irritable, cannot concentrate and susceptible to illness/infections Gender differences in access to food and medical care Adolescent girls attaining menarche may not have access to iron and folic acid Iodine deficiency Iodine essential for brain development – mental development affected by deficiency Hypothyroidism in mother can lead to mental retardation in children Worm infections May lead to weakness / aggravate malnutrition Affects cognitive development Hookworm can lead to anaemia Infectious diseases, Weakness, frequent spells of illness tuberculosis, malaria, Cognitive impairment meningitis, scabies, Skin eruptions / oozing sores – leading to segregation/disgust in gastrointestinal school infections / diarrhoeal Long-term behavioural problems (especially with scabies and diseases skin infections) HIV/AIDS impact on Teacher attrition / dropout of children of people who are the school affected – no evidence as yet in Asia of impact of HIV/AIDS on education Children withdrawn due to stigma, care of the ill Low teacher attendance/availability in the event of many cases in village/locality Scepticism regarding the value of education – sense of fatalism Education system not prepared to deal with it – as yet 72 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA HIV/AIDS infection in Poor families with no access to Antiretroviral Therapy children / risk of (ART) give up hope infection Children orphaned and have to take on survival tasks Children with AIDS are most likely to have lost one or both parents Increased rates of depression and feeling of helplessness Social stigma – no support structure Violence and child Early exposure to violence can have an impact on the abuse architecture of the maturing brain Social, emotional and cognitive impairment – including substance abuse, early sexual activity, anxiety, depressive disorders, aggressive behaviour Eating and sleeping disorders Feeling of shame and guilt Physical injuries, pregnancy Reproductive health problems Attempts to suicide Corporal punishment, Affect cognitive development bullying and gender- Child withdraws in school – does not participate based violence in Negatively impacts self-esteem schools Lead to dropping out Feeling of shame and guilt Physical injuries, pregnancy Source: Ramachandran (2007) 73 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 4 Promoting Health and Education for Girls – Where Do We Stand? n.a n.a n.a n.a Sri Lanka n.a n.a n.a Pakistan Not available: n.a n.a n.a Nepal n.a n.a n.a n.a Maldives India , Level 3 concerted effort: n.a n.a n.a Bhutan n.a Level of effort to promote girls’ education: Bangladesh ; Level 2 Some effort Afghanistan Level 1 Poor: Source: Adapted from Bennell (2004); cited in Ramachandran (2008) Compulsory education Free education up to elementary Physical access Encourage recruitment of women teachers Water and toilets in school School meal programme School health programme Iron, folic acid, nutrition and school health Violence, abuse and corporal punishment Life skills education / HIV/ AIDS education 74 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 5 Government of India Report on Child Abuse, 2006 The recent report brought out by the Government of India, Ministry of Women and Child Development, has, for the first time, documented the prevalence of child abuse, including violence in schools. The report has come out with startling findings: Two out of every three children are physically abused. Out of the 69 per cent physically abused in 13 sample states, 54.68 per cent were boys. Over 50 per cent of children in all the 13 sample states were being subject to one or another form of physical abuse; 88.6 per cent were physically abused by parents. 65 per cent of school-going children reported facing corporal punishment – two out of three children were victims of corporal punishment, a majority of them in government and municipal schools. 53.22 per cent children reported having faced one or more forms of sexual abuse – 5.69 per cent were sexually assaulted. Every second child reported facing emotional abuse, both boys and girls. 50.2 per cent of children reported they worked seven days a week – this includes children formally enrolled in school. Most children did not report the matter to anyone. This study interviewed 3163 children who were enrolled and attending school. In all age groups, an overwhelming majority reported being beaten up at school. Out of those reporting corporal punishment in schools, 54.28 per cent were boys and 45.72 per cent were girls. Source: GOI Report on Child Abuse (2007). www.wcd.nic.in; cited in Ramachandran (2008). 75 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 6 How Children Learn and Implications for School Practice *Learners concentrate most on tasks that are personally meaningful and essentially learn what they want to learn. The search for meaning is an innate human characteristic and motivation for learning increases and persists when students investigate real problems, and when learning is presented and reported in new ways. Surprisingly, students respond better to sophisticated learning tasks than simple ones, as demonstrated in schools that successfully teach urban poor children, not simplistic remediation, but linking reading, writing and maths problem solving to complex issues in the students’ community. *There is no limit to the capacity of humans to learn more; educators must not underestimate what students can do. We create limits and set goals based on the perception of whether something is challenging and achievable, whether we have the self-confidence to do it, and whether we have the needed support. *Learning is developmental and follows pre-determined sequences. Education is more effective when developmental differences are taken into account. Learners who know little about a topic approach it differently from those who know more about a topic. For example, maths operations are first explored by manipulating real objects and later explored using symbols for the concrete objects. *Each individual learns differently, using unique strategies, approaches and capabilities that may result from differences in linguistic, cultural and social backgrounds. backgrounds. People construct new knowledge by building on what they already know. Each brain is different in the way it is organized and there is no such thing as a single general intelligence. The brain has a rather messy, non-linear way of forming patterns to link all of this old and new information. *Learning is fundamentally social and, therefore, learning is inseparable from engagement in the world. Learning is influenced and motivated by social interactions and interpersonal relations. Teacher–student interactions should go beyond recitation, in which there is a correct answer the teacher expects to hear, and involve real discussion, in which students offer conjectures and respond to others’ ideas. 76 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA *Feedback – information from outside regarding the accuracy and relevance of our thoughts and actions – is essential to learning. Educators must try to make sure that learners receive accurate, useful and timely feedback. It involves interaction with other students and experts, and a structure for peers to give and receive feedback. It involves learning how to self-evaluate. *Successful learning involves strategies and those strategies are learned. Students can be taught this form of self-management by coaching them to think ahead, plan for time and tools, envision the steps, and monitor progress. Students can also learn how to organize their own learning from listening to others as they describe their strategies and processes. *There is a strong relationship between emotions and learning. Strong emotions enhance memory; people learn poorly in stressful environments. Our ability to think and to learn effectively is closely linked to our physical and emotional well-being. An appropriate emotional climate is indispensable to sound education. Source: Llewellyn / Creative Associates (2002); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 77 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 7 Case Studies on Girls’ Participation In Nepal, the Safe Spaces project, funded by Save the Children, has involved girls in participatory research (PRA) which has proved a source of empowerment for them by allowing them to identify the characteristics of a safe environment and to develop an action plan to ‘take back their space’ in the community and on the way to and from school. Boys were involved in the process only when the girls felt it was necessary. In order to reclaim their ‘space’, the girls identified the need: for parents to recognize the importance of girls’ education; to avoid conservative traditions such as gender discrimination within castes, between sons and daughters, and early marriage; for girls to be able to demonstrate their ability within the community; for people to speak out against the injustices and oppression of girls; to raise awareness of girls’ rights and enable their access to equal opportunities. As a result of the process, changes have occurred within the community. For example, the girls’ group was consulted by the community members on various cases of abuse or mistreatment of girls and the girls’ group got an abducted girl released by contacting the police, local NGOs and the District Child Welfare Board; teachers and boys within schools and the community are paying greater respect to girls than earlier and boys who were initially teasers now support girls’ efforts to manage change. Boys are beginning to advocate respect for girls through drama. Support groups for girls who have faced abuse have been established by local communities. Source: www.id21.org/education/gender_violence/index.html; cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). In Mazar (north Afghanistan) youth groups have been involved in a campaign to get children back to school. They have been using multi-media and advocacy tools. The youth went across the northern region to meet with children, parents, community leaders and the Ministry of Education (MoE) and discuss why and how children could be supported and brought (back) into school. The youth worked directly with school- age children and gathered much information. Using poetry, song and drama, they conveyed how children could get themselves and their peers back in school. Children and young people had a major role in this initiative. Source: Save the Children (Afghanistan); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 78 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ANNEX 8 Policy Changes That May Improve Instructional Outcomes CURRENT POLICIES PROPOSED ALTERNATIVES RATIONALE Early Reading Fluency Little or no attention to how Focus on reading fluency; Early fluent reading is much students learn early shift resources to grades critical for future on; reading is considered a 1–2. performance; inability to low-level issue. read increases repetition costs and dropout. Grade 1–2 students have the Extra resources for lower Prevent dropout with same or less time and grades to catch up, read, illiteracy; enable multi-grade resources in schools and and calculate fluently; better students to read fluently. may have the poorer teachers; frequent support teachers. and supervision. Donor reliance on sample- Use rapid school surveys to Learning assessments take based learning assessment monitor the skills of grade 1– place years after inefficient to monitor progress, focus 2 for high-risk areas. instruction; governments on later grades. rarely use the data. If many students fail, It is better to remedy rather Students are unlikely to automatic promotion may be than promote automatically. learn simple material in a recommended. higher-level class. If classes have more than 60 Opportunity to learn is all- students, multi-shifts are Very large classes may be important. Large classes often established. preferable to limited might be managed through instruction. different grouping techniques. Textbooks for classroom use; More practice, ability to some textbook loan Textbooks for all students to recall complex material. schemes. take home. 79 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Textbooks for primary Textbooks for all levels to Without textbooks, practice students only. No textbooks take home. Find means to is limited in the lower for secondary schools or get savings, loan schemes, grades, and content is teacher training institutes. and parental participation to forgotten or never learned in get textbooks for the post higher grades. Teachers’ primary levels. time usually costs more than books. Mother-tongue Instruction Deference to national Convincing countries and Students may need 5–7 policies and national or financing mother-tongue years to catch up with native English language of instruction at least for the speakers, particularly if instruction for all grades in lower grades; phase out in foreign language has many countries. higher grades. complex spelling. Experimental programmes in Formalize and extend the Phonetically spelled native some countries carried out experimental programmes. languages help achieve for decades. Sensitize communities. literacy quickly. Educator Training Almost any training scheme Reform of teacher training Teachers may practice in for educational staff is based on learning principles classroom little of what they acceptable to the donor highly pertinent to their are exposed to in training. community. work. Lecturing about teaching. Correcting dysfunctional Much teaching behaviour is modelling behaviours, learned through modelling instilling effective behaviours rather than higher order (partly through videos). instruction. Supervision and Management Principals have limited School-based management. Increasing the intrinsic supervisory authority over Knowledgeable principals motivational rewards that teachers and accountability encouraging teachers and result from signalling a job for school performance. providing frequent classroom well done and giving feedback. corrective feedback. Rare supervisions from Strengthen the supervisory Teachers need someone to district offices. and supportive chain and praise them, must work frequent teacher/visitation. towards that goal. 80 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA Limited interest in Retrain supervisory staff to If higher authorities are inspectors’ sand supervisors’ submit reports on a limited actually interested in the reports number of instructionally reports and can do significant variables. something about improving conditions, this may constitute an incentive for staff to supervise. Community Involvement Usually few systematic A communications strategy Erroneous parental attempts to change parental involving mass media to perceptions on instructional perceptions on school-related convince parents about the interventions may drive issues. value of bilingual education, governments to reject teacher monitoring, school valuable solutions for involvement, etc. educating the poor. Community associations often Search for ways to improve Communities are present ineffective in school participation. Impart and interested, even if they supervision. performance standards they do not know how schools must check for. must be run. School Health and Nutrition Education projects rarely Health and nutrition critical Education and health include school health or for information processing. ministries must learn to nutrition. collaborate more closely. Offer of food that does not Usually no school feeding require preparation, such as Food may keep children in special high-nutrition school and is modestly Early childhood education cookies or milk. related to performance; and development empower communities to programmes limited in scope. Improve effectiveness, deal with corruption. engage communities (e.g. through community-driven More-developed brains are development). better able to learn basic skills. Source: Copied with permission from Abadzi (2006); cited in Heijnen-Maathuis (2008). 81 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA ABOUT THE AUTHOR Sarah Huxley is a development professional, who has been actively engaged in development work since 1999, with three years of direct experience in designing and implementing youth-focused and culture-related programmes in Kathmandu and rural Nepal. She holds a degree in Anthropology and Geography (from Oxford Brookes University) specializing in North–South relations, and will soon complete a Masters in Cross Cultural Studies of Children, Child Development and Youth at Brunel University, UK. She has worked in Nepal for the last three years and has a range of experience with both national and international organizations. Her special areas of interest are child participation, youth empowerment and cross-cultural development discourses. 82 PROGRESS IN GIRLS' EDUCATION: THE CHALLENGE OF GENDER EQUALITY IN SOUTH ASIA 83 Published by United Nations Children’s Fund Regional Office for South Asia P. O. Box 5815 Lekhnath Marg Kathmandu, Nepal Telephone: 977-1-4417082 Facsmile: 977-1-4418466 / 4419479 www.unicef.org
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